Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research recent issues

Summary Publication Statistics for 2006-2008 [Editor's Page]

Mon, 30 Nov 2009 18:54:10 PST

Spoken Word Recognition in Toddlers Who Use Cochlear Implants [Articles]

Grieco-Calub, T. M., Saffran, J. R., Litovsky, R. Y. — Mon, 30 Nov 2009 18:54:10 PST

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to assess the time course of spoken word recognition in 2-year-old children who use cochlear implants (CIs) in quiet and in the presence of speech competitors.

Method

Children who use CIs and age-matched peers with normal acoustic hearing listened to familiar auditory labels, in quiet or in the presence of speech competitors, while their eye movements to target objects were digitally recorded. Word recognition performance was quantified by measuring each child's reaction time (i.e., the latency between the spoken auditory label and the first look at the target object) and accuracy (i.e., the amount of time that children looked at target objects within 367 ms to 2,000 ms after the label onset).

Results

Children with CIs were less accurate and took longer to fixate target objects than did age-matched children without hearing loss. Both groups of children showed reduced performance in the presence of the speech competitors, although many children continued to recognize labels at above-chance levels.

Conclusion

The results suggest that the unique auditory experience of young CI users slows the time course of spoken word recognition abilities. In addition, real-world listening environments may slow language processing in young language learners, regardless of their hearing status.

Modeling Developmental Language Difficulties From School Entry Into Adulthood: Literacy, Mental Health, and Employment Outcomes [Articles]

Law, J., Rush, R., Schoon, I., Parsons, S. — Mon, 30 Nov 2009 18:54:10 PST

Purpose

Understanding the long-term outcomes of developmental language difficulties is key to knowing what significance to attach to them. To date, most prognostic studies have tended to be clinical rather than population-based, which necessarily affects the interpretation. This study sought to address this issue using data from a U.K. birth cohort of 17,196 children, following them from school entry to adulthood, examining literacy, mental health, and employment at 34 years of age. The study compared groups with specific language impairment (SLI), nonspecific language impairment (N-SLI), and typically developing language (TL).

Method

Secondary data analysis of the imputed 5-year and 34-year data was carried using multivariate logistic regressions.

Results

The results show strong associations for demographic and biological risk for both impairment groups. The associations are consistent for the N-SLI group but rather more mixed for the SLI group.

Conclusions

The data indicate that both SLI and N-SLI represent significant risk factors for all the outcomes identified. There is a strong case for the identification of these children and the development of appropriate interventions. The results are discussed in terms of the measures used and the implications for practice.

Judgments of Omitted BE and DO in Questions as Extended Finiteness Clinical Markers of Specific Language Impairment (SLI) to 15 Years: A Study of Growth and Asymptote [Articles]

Rice, M. L., Hoffman, L., Wexler, K. — Mon, 30 Nov 2009 18:54:10 PST

Purpose

Clinical grammar markers are needed for children with SLI older than 8 years. This study followed children who were previously studied on sentences with omitted finiteness to determine if affected children continue to perform at low levels and to examine possible predictors of low performance. This is the first longitudinal report of grammaticality judgments of questions.

Method

Three groups of children participated: 20 SLI, 20 age controls, and 18 language-matched controls, followed from ages 6–15 years. An experimental grammaticality judgment task was administered with BE copula/auxiliary and DO auxiliary in wh- and yes/no questions for 9 times of measurement. Predictors were indices of vocabulary, nonverbal intelligence, and maternal education.

Results

Growth curve analyses show that the affected group performed below the younger controls at each time of measurement, for each variable. Growth analyses show linear and quadratic effects for both groups across variables, with the exception of BE acquisition, which was flat for both groups. The control children reached ceiling levels; the affected children reached a lower asymptote.

Conclusion

The results suggest an ongoing maturational lag in finiteness marking for affected children with promise as a clinical marker for language impairment in school-aged and adolescent children and probably adults as well.

The Development of Distinct Speaking Styles in Preschool Children [Articles]

Redford, M. A., Gildersleeve-Neumann, C. E. — Mon, 30 Nov 2009 18:54:10 PST

Purpose

To examine when and how socially conditioned distinct speaking styles emerge in typically developing preschool children's speech.

Method

Thirty preschool children, ages 3, 4, and 5 years old, produced target monosyllabic words with monophthongal vowels in different social–functional contexts designed to elicit clear and casual speaking styles. Thirty adult listeners were used to assess whether and at what age style differences were perceptible. Children's speech was acoustically analyzed to evaluate how style-dependent differences were produced.

Results

The ratings indicated that listeners could not discern style differences in 3-year-olds' speech but could hear distinct styles in 4-year-olds' and especially in 5-year-olds' speech. The acoustic measurements were consistent with these results: Style-dependent differences in 4- and 5-year-olds' words included shorter vowel durations and lower fundamental frequency in clear compared with casual speech words. Five-year-olds' clear speech words also had more final stop releases and initial sibilants with higher spectral energy than did their casual speech words. Formant frequency measures showed no style-dependent differences in vowel production at any age nor any differences in initial stop voice onset times.

Conclusion

Overall, the findings suggest that distinct styles develop slowly and that early style-dependent differences in children's speech are unlike those observed in adult clear and casual speech. Children may not develop adultlike styles until they have acquired expert articulatory control and the ability to highlight the internal structure of an articulatory plan for a listener.

The Acquisition of Auxiliary Syntax: A Longitudinal Elicitation Study. Part 1: Auxiliary BE [Articles]

Theakston, A. L., Rowland, C. F. — Mon, 30 Nov 2009 18:54:10 PST

Purpose

The question of how and when English-speaking children acquire auxiliaries is the subject of extensive debate. Some researchers posit the existence of innately given Universal Grammar principles to guide acquisition, although some aspects of the auxiliary system must be learned from the input. Others suggest that auxiliaries can be learned without Universal Grammar, citing evidence of piecemeal learning in their support. This study represents a unique attempt to trace the development of auxiliary syntax by using a longitudinal elicitation methodology.

Method

Twelve English-speaking children participated in 3 tasks designed to elicit auxiliary BE in declaratives and yes/no and wh-questions. They completed each task 6 times in total between the ages of 2;10 (years;months) and 3;6.

Results

The children's levels of correct use of 2 forms of BE (is, are) differed according to auxiliary form and sentence structure, and these relations changed over development. An analysis of the children's errors also revealed complex interactions between these factors.

Conclusion

These data are problematic for existing accounts of auxiliary acquisition and highlight the need for researchers working within both generativist and constructivist frameworks to develop more detailed theories of acquisition that directly predict the pattern of acquisition observed.

The Acquisition of Auxiliary Syntax: A Longitudinal Elicitation Study. Part 2: The Modals and Auxiliary DO [Articles]

Rowland, C. F., Theakston, A. L. — Mon, 30 Nov 2009 18:54:10 PST

Purpose

The study of auxiliary acquisition is central to work on language development and has attracted theoretical work from both nativist and constructivist approaches. This study is part of a 2-part companion set that represents a unique attempt to trace the development of auxiliary syntax by using a longitudinal elicitation methodology. The aim of the research described in this part is to track the development of modal auxiliaries and auxiliary DO in questions and declaratives to provide a more complete picture of the development of the auxiliary system in English-speaking children.

Method

Twelve English-speaking children participated in 2 tasks designed to elicit auxiliaries CAN, WILL, and DOES in declaratives and yes/no questions. They completed each task 6 times in total between the ages of 2;10 (years;months) and 3;6.

Results

The children's levels of correct use of the target auxiliaries differed in complex ways according to auxiliary, polarity, and sentence structure, and these relations changed over development. An analysis of the children's errors also revealed complex interactions between these factors.

Conclusions

These data cannot be explained in full by existing theories of auxiliary acquisition. Researchers working within both generativist and constructivist frameworks need to develop more detailed theories of acquisition that predict the pattern of acquisition observed.

The Perception of Lexical Tone Contrasts in Cantonese Children With and Without Specific Language Impairment (SLI) [Articles]

Wong, A. M.-Y., Ciocca, V., Yung, S. — Mon, 30 Nov 2009 18:54:10 PST

Purpose

This study examined the perception of fundamental frequency (f0) patterns by Cantonese children with and without specific language impairment (SLI).

Method

Participants were 14 five-year-old children with SLI, and 14 age-matched (AM) and 13 four-year-old vocabulary-matched (VM) controls. The children identified a word from familiar word pairs that illustrated the 8 minimally contrastive pairs of the 6 lexical tones. They discriminated the f0 patterns within contrastive tonal pairs in speech and nonspeech stimuli.

Results

In tone identification, the SLI group performed worse than the AM group but not the VM group. In tone discrimination, the SLI group did worse than the AM group on 2 contrasts and showed a nonsignificant trend of poorer performance on all contrasts combined. The VM group generally did worse than the AM group. There were no group differences in discrimination performance between speech and nonspeech stimuli. No correlation was found between identification and discrimination performance. Only the normal controls showed a moderate correlation between vocabulary scores and performance in the 2 perception tasks.

Conclusion

The SLI group's poor tone identification cannot be accounted for by vocabulary knowledge alone. The group's tone discrimination performance suggests that some children with SLI have a deficit in f0 processing.

Speech Perception Abilities of Adults With Dyslexia: Is There Any Evidence for a True Deficit? [Articles]

Hazan, V., Messaoud-Galusi, S., Rosen, S., Nouwens, S., Shakespeare, B. — Mon, 30 Nov 2009 18:54:10 PST

Purpose

This study investigated whether adults with dyslexia show evidence of a consistent speech perception deficit by testing phoneme categorization and word perception in noise.

Method

Seventeen adults with dyslexia and 20 average readers underwent a test battery including standardized reading, language and phonological awareness tests, and tests of speech perception. Categorization of a pea/bee voicing contrast was evaluated using adaptive identification and discrimination tasks, presented in quiet and in noise, and a fixed-step discrimination task. Two further tests of word perception in noise were presented.

Results

There were no significant group differences for categorization in quiet or noise, across- and within-category discrimination as measured adaptively, or word perception, but average readers showed better across- and within-category discrimination in the fixed-step discrimination task. Individuals did not show consistent poor performance across related tasks.

Conclusions

The small number of group differences, and lack of consistent poor individual performance, suggests weak support for a speech perception deficit in dyslexia. It seems likely that at least some poor performances are attributable to nonsensory factors like attention. It may also be that some individuals with dyslexia have speech perceptual acuity that is at the lower end of the normal range and exacerbated by nonsensory factors.

Mandibular Motor Control During the Early Development of Speech and Nonspeech Behaviors [Articles]

Steeve, R. W., Moore, C. A. — Mon, 30 Nov 2009 18:54:10 PST

Purpose

The mandible is often portrayed as a primary structure of early babble production, but empiricists still need to specify (a) how mandibular motor control and kinematics vary among different types of multisyllabic babble, (b) whether chewing or jaw oscillation relies on a coordinative infrastructure that can be exploited for early types of multisyllables, and (c) whether the organization of motor control and associated kinematics varies across the nonspeech behaviors that are candidate motor stereotypies for speech.

Method

Electromyographic signals were obtained from mandibular muscle groups, and associated kinematics were measured longitudinally from a typically developing infant from 9 to 22 months during jaw oscillation, chewing, and several types of early multisyllabic babble.

Results

Measures of early motor control and mandibular kinematics for multisyllabic productions indicated task-dependent changes across syllable types and significant differences across babble and nonspeech behaviors. Differences in motor control were also observed across nonspeech behaviors.

Conclusions

Motor control for babble appears to be influenced by the balanced interaction between developing motor and linguistic systems, such that variation in linguistic complexity systematically evinces changes in motor organization apparently to meet these demands. This same effect was noted among chewing and jaw oscillation; task-dependent changes in mandibular control were noted across behaviors.

Lipreading, Processing Speed, and Working Memory in Younger and Older Adults [Articles]

Feld, J. E., Sommers, M. S. — Mon, 30 Nov 2009 18:54:10 PST

Purpose

To examine several cognitive and perceptual abilities—including working memory (WM), information processing speed (PS), perceptual closure, and perceptual disembedding skill—as factors contributing to individual differences in lipreading performance and to examine how patterns in predictor variables change across age groups.

Method

Forty-three younger adults (mean age = 20.8 years, SD = 2.4) and 38 older adults (mean age = 76.8 years, SD = 5.6) completed tasks measuring lipreading ability, verbal WM, spatial WM (SWM), PS, and perceptual abilities.

Results

Younger adults demonstrated superior lipreading ability and perceptual skills compared with older adults. In addition, younger participants exhibited longer WM spans and faster PS than did the older participants. SWM and PS accounted for a significant proportion of the variance in lipreading ability in both younger and older adults, and the pattern of predictor variables remained consistent over age groups.

Conclusions

These findings suggest that the large individual variability in lipreading ability can be explained, in part, by individual differences in SWM and PS. Furthermore, as both of these abilities are known to decline with age, the findings suggest that age-related impairments in either or both of these abilities may account for the poorer lipreading ability of older compared with younger adults.

Somatosensory Gating Is Dependent on the Rate of Force Recruitment in the Human Orofacial System [Articles]

Andreatta, R. D., Barlow, S. M. — Mon, 30 Nov 2009 18:54:10 PST

Purpose

Functional orofacial behaviors vary in their force endpoint and rate of recruitment. This study assessed the gating of orofacial cutaneous somatosensation during different cyclic lip force recruitment rates. Understanding how differences in the rate of force recruitment influences trigeminal system function is an important step toward furthering the knowledge of orofacial sensorimotor control.

Method

Lower lip vibrotactile detection thresholds (LL-VDTs) were sampled in response to sinusoidal inputs delivered to the lip vermilion at 5, 10, 50, and 150 Hz while adult participants engaged in a baseline condition (no force), 2 low-level lip force recruitment tasks differing by rate (0.1 Hz or 2 Hz), and passive displacement of the lip as a control to approximate the mechanosensory consequences of voluntary movement.

Results

LL-VDTs increased significantly for test frequencies at or below 50 Hz during voluntary lip force recruitment. LL-VDT shifts were positively related to changes in the rate of lip force recruitment, whereas passively imposed displacements of the lip were ineffective in shifting LL-VDTs.

Conclusions

These findings are considered in relation to published reports of force-related sensory gating in orofacial and limb systems and the potential role of somatosensory gating along the trigeminal system during orofacial behaviors.

Characteristics of the Transition to Spoken Words in Two Young Cochlear Implant Recipients [Articles]

Ertmer, D. J., Inniger, K. J. — Mon, 30 Nov 2009 18:54:10 PST

Purpose

This investigation addressed two main questions: (a) How do toddlers' spoken utterances change during the first year of cochlear implant (CI) use? and (b) How do the time-courses for reaching spoken word milestones after implant activation compare with those reported for typically developing children? These questions were explored to increase understanding of early semantic development in children who receive CIs before their second birthdays.

Methods

Monthly recordings of mother-child interactions were gathered during the first year of CI use by a boy and a girl whose CIs were activated at 11 and 21 months of age, respectively. Child utterances were classified as nonwords, pre-words, single words, or word combinations, and the percentages of these utterance types were calculated for each month. Data were compared to published findings for typically developing children for the number of months of robust hearing (i.e., auditory access to conversational speech) needed to reach spoken word milestones and the chronological ages at which milestones were achieved.

Results

The main findings were that the percentages of nonwords and pre-words decreased as single words and word combinations increased. Both children achieved most spoken word milestones with fewer months of robust hearing experience than reported for typically developing children; the youngest recipient achieved more milestones within typical age ranges than the child implanted later in life.

Conclusions

The children's expeditious gains in spoken word development appeared to be facilitated by interactions among their pre-implant hearing experiences; their relatively advanced physical, cognitive, and social maturity; participation in intervention programs; and the introduction of robust hearing within the Utterance Acquisition phase of language development according to the neurolingusitic theory (J. Locke, 1997).

Computational Neural Modeling of Speech Motor Control in Childhood Apraxia of Speech (CAS) [Articles]

Terband, H., Maassen, B., Guenther, F. H., Brumberg, J. — Mon, 30 Nov 2009 18:54:10 PST

Purpose

Childhood apraxia of speech (CAS) has been associated with a wide variety of diagnostic descriptions and has been shown to involve different symptoms during successive stages of development. In the present study, the authors attempted to associate the symptoms of CAS in a particular developmental stage with particular information-processing deficits by using computational modeling with the Directions Into Velocities of Articulators (DIVA) model. The hypothesis was that the speech production system in CAS suffers from poor feed-forward control and, consequently, an increased reliance on the feedback control subsystem.

Method

In a series of computer simulations, the authors systematically varied the ratio between feed-forward and feedback control during production attempts in the acquisition of feed-forward motor commands. The simulations were evaluated acoustically on 4 selected key symptoms of CAS.

Results

Results showed that increasing the reliance on feedback control causes increased severity of these 4 symptoms of CAS: deviant coarticulation, speech sound distortion, searching articulation, and increased variability.

Conclusions

The findings support the idea that the key symptoms found in CAS could result from an increased reliance on feedback control due to poor feed-forward commands. Two possible root causes of degraded feed-forward control in CAS are discussed: reduced somatosensory information and increased levels of neural noise.

Factorial Temperament Structure in Stuttering, Voice-Disordered, and Typically Developing Children [Articles]

Eggers, K., De Nil, L. F., Van den Bergh, B. R. H. — Mon, 30 Nov 2009 18:54:10 PST

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to determine whether the underlying temperamental structure of the Dutch Children's Behavior Questionnaire (CBQ; B. Van den Bergh & M. Ackx, 2003) was identical for children who stutter (CWS), typically developing children (TDC), and children with vocal nodules (CWVN).

Method

A principal axis factor analysis was performed on data obtained with the Dutch CBQ from 69 CWS, 149 TDC, and 41 CWVN. All children were between the ages of 3;0 (years;months) and 8;11.

Results

Results indicated a 3-factor solution, identified as Extraversion/Surgency, Negative Affect, and Effortful Control, for each of the participant groups, showing considerable similarity to previously published U.S., Chinese, Japanese, and Dutch samples. Congruence coefficients were highest for CWS and TDC and somewhat more modest when comparing CWVN and TDC. The Effortful Control factor consistently yielded the lowest congruence coefficients.

Conclusion

These data confirm that although stuttering, voice-disordered, and typically developing children may differ quantitatively with regard to mean scores on temperament scales, they are similar in terms of their overall underlying temperament structure. The equivalence of temperament structure provides a basis for further comparison of mean group scores on the individual temperament scales.

Effects of Syntactic Complexity and Sentence-Structure Priming on Speech Initiation Time in Adults Who Stutter [Articles]

Tsiamtsiouris, J., Cairns, H. S. — Mon, 30 Nov 2009 18:54:10 PST

Purpose

To test the hypotheses that adults who stutter will be slower in producing syntactically complex sentences than fluent adults and will benefit more from sentence-structure priming than will fluent adults.

Method

Adults who stutter (n = 15) and fluent adults (n = 15) participated in 2 experiments. In Experiment 1, adults in both groups were administered a task that required memorization and production of sentences that varied in syntactic complexity. The same individuals who participated in Experiment 1 also participated in Experiment 2. The second experiment required all participants to create and produce sentences under primed and unprimed sentence-structure conditions.

Results

Relative to adults who do not stutter, the speech initiation time of fluent utterances of adults who stutter became increasingly slower as syntactic complexity increased, and they exhibited greater facilitative effects of sentence-structure priming. In addition, adults who stutter showed a significant correlation between syntactic complexity and priming facilitation.

Conclusion

Data from these experiments confirmed both hypotheses and provided evidence that a subgroup of adults who stutter have grammatical encoding differences when compared with adults who do not stutter.

A Comparative Study of Two Acoustic Measures of Hypernasality [Articles]

Vogel, A. P., Ibrahim, H. M., Reilly, S., Kilpatrick, N. — Mon, 30 Nov 2009 18:54:10 PST

Purpose

This study aimed to compare 2 quantitative acoustic measures of nasality in children with cleft lip and palate (CLP) and healthy controls using formalized perceptual assessment as a guide.

Method

Fifty participants (23 children with CLP and 27 age- and gender-matched healthy controls) aged between 4 and 12 years produced a variety of high and low vowels that allowed perceptual ratings of nasal resonance severity as well as acoustic analysis of spectral changes. Two objective measures of nasality were used: 1/3 octave spectra analysis and the voice low tone high tone ratio. Each respective technique has been evaluated in previous research, and their potential as an effective means of detecting changes in nasal resonance has been demonstrated.

Results

Only 1/3 octave spectra analysis differentiated between participants with hypernasal speech and those perceived to have normal nasal resonance. Significant differences were also observed between varying levels of perceived severity on vowels within nonnasalized phonemic environments (/pit/, /tip/).

Conclusions

Perceptual judgment remains the primary means of evaluating levels of nasality in children with CLP. However, the development and validation of easy-to-use objective techniques remains an important goal for effective clinical and empirical practice.

Relief of Acquired Stuttering Associated With Parkinson's Disease by Unilateral Left Subthalamic Brain Stimulation [Research Note]

Mon, 30 Nov 2009 18:54:10 PST

Purpose

In this article, the authors report a case of acquired stuttering associated with Parkinson's disease (PD) that was responsive to unilateral subthalamic nucleus deep-brain stimulation (STN DBS) in the language-dominant hemisphere.

Method

A single-subject, masked, multiple baseline design was used to evaluate the effects of unilateral left STN DBS on stuttering associated with PD. The patient underwent 3 formal speech assessments of spontaneous speech and the reading of passages with DBS off and on. Speech samples were videotaped and placed in random order, and 2 independent speech-language pathologists calculated the percentage of stuttered syllables and classified individual stuttering events.

Results

Stuttering improved significantly in the DBS-on condition. In total, 10% of syllables were affected by stuttering events with DBS off, and less than 1% of syllables were affected by stuttering events with DBS on (n = 2,281 syllables, p < .00001, in a ² test). The effect of unilateral STN DBS on stuttering was relatively independent of whether the patient was on or off dopaminergic medications.

Conclusion

This article emphasizes the important role of the subthalamic region in the motor control of speech and language.

Comparison of Two Methods of Voice Activity Detection in Field Studies [Research Note]

Lindstrom, F., Ren, K., Li, H., Waye, K. P. — Mon, 30 Nov 2009 18:54:10 PST

Purpose

To evaluate and compare the performance of 2 methods of voice activity detection (neck-attached accelerometer vs. binaural recordings) in field studies in environments where voice activity normally occurs.

Method

A group of 11 healthy adults wore recording equipment during their lunch break. We used binary classification to analyze the results from the 2 methods. The output was compared to a gold standard, obtained through listening tests, and the probability for sensitivity (Ps) and false positive (Pf) was rated. The binary classifiers were set for consistent sensitivity of 99%; thus, the lower false positive rate would indicate the method with the better performance.

Results

The neck-attached accelerometer (Pf = 0.5%) performed significantly (p < .001) better than the binaural method (Pf = 7%).

Conclusion

The neck-attached accelerometer is more suitable than the binaural method for voice assessments in environments where people are speaking in close proximity to each other and where the signal-to-noise ratio is moderate to low.

Behavior Predictors of Language Development Over 2 Years in Children With Autism Spectrum Disorders [Articles]

Bopp, K. D., Mirenda, P., Zumbo, B. D. — Thu, 24 Sep 2009 08:26:01 PDT

Purpose

This exploratory study examined predictive relationships between 5 types of behaviors and the trajectories of vocabulary and language development in young children with autism over 2 years.

Method

Participants were 69 children with autism assessed using standardized measures prior to the initiation of early intervention (T1) and 6 months (T2), 12 months (T3), and 24 months (T4) later. Growth curve modeling examined the extent to which behaviors at T1 and changes in behaviors between T1 and T2 predicted changes in development from T1 to T4.

Results

Regardless of T1 nonverbal IQ and autism severity, high scores for inattentive behaviors at T1 predicted lower rates of change in vocabulary production and language comprehension over 2 years. High scores for social unresponsiveness at T1 predicted lower rates of change in vocabulary comprehension and production and in language comprehension over 2 years. Scores for insistence on sameness behaviors, repetitive stereotypic motor behaviors, and acting-out behaviors at T1 did not predict the rate of change of any child measure over 2 years beyond differences accounted for by T1 autism severity and nonverbal IQ status.

Conclusions

The results are discussed with regard to their implications for early intervention and understanding the complex factors that affect developmental outcomes.

Effects of It Takes Two to Talk--The Hanen Program for Parents of Preschool Children With Cerebral Palsy: Findings From an Exploratory Study [Articles]

Pennington, L., Thomson, K., James, P., Martin, L., McNally, R. — Thu, 24 Sep 2009 08:26:01 PDT

Purpose

To investigate whether It Takes Two to Talk—The Hanen Program for Parents of Preschool Children With Cerebral Palsy is associated with change in interaction between children who have motor disorders and their parents.

Method

Eleven children aged 19–36 months who had nonprogressive motor disorders that affected their communication, and their mothers, were observed 4 months and 1 month before mothers attended It Takes Two to Talk training, and 1 month and 4 months after its completion.

Results

Interaction patterns were stable prior to training. After training, mothers initiated less and produced more responses and fewer requests. Children produced more initiations, as well as more requests and provisions of information, after training. Mothers' linguistic input did not change in amount or complexity. Changes were maintained 4 months later. Mothers' views of parenting did not change.

Conclusions

It Takes Two to Talk may be associated with positive communication change for this group. Further investigation of its clinical effectiveness is warranted.

Communicative Acts of Children With Autism Spectrum Disorders in the Second Year of Life [Articles]

Shumway, S., Wetherby, A. M. — Thu, 24 Sep 2009 08:26:01 PDT

Purpose

To examine the communicative profiles of children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) in the second year of life.

Method

Communicative acts were examined in 125 children 18 to 24 months of age: 50 later diagnosed with ASD; 25 with developmental delays (DD); and 50 with typical development (TD). Precise measures of rate, functions, and means of communication were obtained through systematic observation of videotaped behavior samples from the Communication and Symbolic Behavior Scales Developmental Profile (A. Wetherby & B. Prizant, 2002).

Results

Children with ASD communicated at a significantly lower rate than children with DD and TD. The ASD group used a significantly lower proportion of acts for joint attention and a significantly lower proportion of deictic gestures with a reliance on more primitive gestures compared with the DD and TD groups. Children with ASD who did communicate for joint attention were as likely as other children to coordinate vocalizations, eye gaze, and gestures. Rate of communicative acts and joint attention were the strongest predictors of verbal outcome at age 3.

Conclusion

By 18 to 24 months of age, children later diagnosed with ASD showed a unique profile of communication, with core deficits in communication rate, joint attention, and communicative gestures.

Language Features in a Mother and Daughter of a Chromosome 7;13 Translocation Involving FOXP2 [Articles]

Thu, 24 Sep 2009 08:26:01 PDT

Purpose

The aims of this study were (a) to locate the breakpoints of a balanced translocation (7;13) within a mother (B) and daughter (T); (b) to describe the language and cognitive skills of B and T; and (c) to compare this profile with affected family members of the KE family who have a mutation within FOXP2.

Method

The breakpoint locations for T and B were identified by use of fluorescent in situ hybridization analysis followed by DNA sequencing using long-range polymer chain reaction amplification methods. The cognitive and language characteristics were obtained via the use of standardized tests of intelligence, receptive and expressive vocabulary and sentence use, and a spontaneous language sample.

Results

The translocation breakpoints in T and B were found in FOXP2 on chromosome 7 and in RFC3 on chromosome 13. T and B's pattern of relative strengths and weaknesses across their cognitive and language performance was found to be similar to descriptions of the affected KE family members.

Conclusions

Prior reports of individuals with chromosomal rearrangements of FOXP2 have emphasized their speech impairment. This study provides additional evidence that language—in particular, grammar—is likely to be influenced by abnormalities of FOXP2 function.

What Influences Literacy Outcome in Children With Speech Sound Disorder? [Articles]

Peterson, R. L., Pennington, B. F., Shriberg, L. D., Boada, R. — Thu, 24 Sep 2009 08:26:01 PDT

Purpose

In this study, the authors evaluated literacy outcome in children with histories of speech sound disorder (SSD) who were characterized along 2 dimensions: broader language function and persistence of SSD. In previous studies, authors have demonstrated that each dimension relates to literacy but have not disentangled their effects.

Methods

Two groups of children (86 SSD and 37 controls) were recruited at ages 5–6 and were followed longitudinally. The authors report the literacy of children with SSD at ages 7–9, compared with controls and national norms, and relative to language skill and SSD persistence (both measured at age 5–6).

Results

The SSD group demonstrated elevated rates of reading disability. Language skill but not SSD persistence predicted later literacy. However, SSD persistence was associated with phonological awareness impairments. Phonological awareness alone predicted literacy outcome less well than a model that also included syntax and nonverbal IQ.

Conclusions

Results support previous literature findings that SSD history predicts literacy difficulties and that the association is strongest for SSD + language impairment (LI). Magnitude of phonological impairment alone did not determine literacy outcome, as predicted by the core phonological deficit hypothesis. Instead, consistent with a multiple deficit approach, phonological deficits appeared to interact with other cognitive factors in literacy development.

A Nonword Repetition Task for Speakers With Misarticulations: The Syllable Repetition Task (SRT) [Articles]

Thu, 24 Sep 2009 08:26:01 PDT

Purpose

Conceptual and methodological confounds occur when non(sense) word repetition tasks are administered to speakers who do not have the target speech sounds in their phonetic inventories or who habitually misarticulate targeted speech sounds. In this article, the authors (a) describe a nonword repetition task, the Syllable Repetiton Task (SRT), that eliminates this confound and (b) report findings from 3 validity studies.

Method

Ninety-five preschool children with speech delay and 63 with typical speech completed an assessment battery that included the Nonword Repetition Task (NRT; C. Dollaghan & T. F. Campbell, 1998) and the SRT. SRT stimuli include only 4 of the earliest occurring consonants and 1 early occurring vowel.

Results

Study 1 findings indicated that the SRT eliminated the speech confound in nonword testing with speakers who misarticulate. Study 2 findings indicated that the accuracy of the SRT to identify expressive language impairment was comparable to findings for the NRT. Study 3 findings illustrated the SRT's potential to interrogate speech processing constraints underlying poor nonword repetition accuracy. Results supported both memorial and auditory–perceptual encoding constraints underlying nonword repetition errors in children with speech-language impairment.

Conclusion

The SRT appears to be a psychometrically stable and substantively informative nonword repetition task for emerging genetic research and other research with speakers who misarticulate.

Epidemiology of Speech and Language Impairment in a Nationally Representative Sample of 4- to 5-Year-Old Children [Articles]

McLeod, S., Harrison, L. J. — Thu, 24 Sep 2009 08:26:02 PDT

Purpose

To draw on multiple sources of information to determine prevalence of speech and language impairment in young Australian children.

Method

Information about 4,983 children (ages 4–5 years) from Growing Up in Australia: The Longitudinal Study of Australian Children (Australian Institute of Family Studies, 2007) was obtained via parent interviews and questionnaires, teacher questionnaires, and direct assessment. Data were statistically weighted to the Australian population of 253,202 children in the target age group.

Results

Parent-reported prevalence: 25.2% had concerns about how their child talked and made speech sounds (11.8% "concerned"; 13.4% "a little concerned"), and 9.5% had concerns about how their child understood language (4.4% "concerned"; 5.1% "a little concerned"). Parents who reported concerns identified "speech not clear to others" as the most frequent area of difficulty (12.0%). Teacher-reported prevalence: 22.3% of children were considered to be less competent than others in their expressive language ability (6.7% "much less competent"; 15.6% "less competent"); 16.9% were considered to be less competent than others in their receptive language ability (4.0% "much less competent"; 12.9% "less competent"). The match between parent and teacher identification was higher for expressive speech and language concern than for receptive language. Direct assessment: 13.0% of children were 1–2 SDs below the mean on the Adapted Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test–III (S. Rothman, 2003), and a further 1.7% were > 2 SDs below the mean. Parent and teacher reports were significantly correlated with scores obtained via direct assessment. Period prevalence: Parents and teachers reported that 14.5% of children had accessed speech-language pathologist (SLP) services. 2.2% indicated that they needed but could not access an SLP.

Conclusion

Multiple indicators of speech and language impairment in diverse contexts confirmed the high prevalence of this condition in early childhood and a concomitant need for SLP services.

Objective Measures of Listening Effort: Effects of Background Noise and Noise Reduction [Articles]

Sarampalis, A., Kalluri, S., Edwards, B., Hafter, E. — Thu, 24 Sep 2009 08:26:02 PDT

Purpose

This work is aimed at addressing a seeming contradiction related to the use of noise-reduction (NR) algorithms in hearing aids. The problem is that although some listeners claim a subjective improvement from NR, it has not been shown to improve speech intelligibility, often even making it worse.

Method

To address this, the hypothesis tested here is that the positive effects of NR might be to reduce cognitive effort directed toward speech reception, making it available for other tasks. Normal-hearing individuals participated in 2 dual-task experiments, in which 1 task was to report sentences or words in noise set to various signal-to-noise ratios. Secondary tasks involved either holding words in short-term memory or responding in a complex visual reaction-time task.

Results

At low values of signal-to-noise ratio, although NR had no positive effect on speech reception thresholds, it led to better performance on the word-memory task and quicker responses in visual reaction times.

Conclusions

Results from both dual tasks support the hypothesis that NR reduces listening effort and frees up cognitive resources for other tasks. Future hearing aid research should incorporate objective measurements of cognitive benefits.

Directional Effects on Infants and Young Children in Real Life: Implications for Amplification [Articles]

Thu, 24 Sep 2009 08:26:02 PDT

Purpose

This study examined the head orientation of young children in naturalistic settings and the acoustics of their everyday environments for quantifying the potential effects of directionality.

Method

Twenty-seven children (11 with normal hearing, 16 with impaired hearing) between 11 and 78 months of age were video recorded in naturalistic settings for analyses of head orientation. Reports on daily activities were obtained from caregivers. The effect of directionality in different environments was quantified by measuring the Speech Transmission Index (STI; H. J. M. Steeneken & T. Houtgast, 1980).

Results

Averaged across 4 scenarios, children looked in the direction of a talker for 40% of the time when speech was present. Head orientation was not affected by age or hearing status. The STI measurements revealed a directional advantage of 3 dB when a child looked at a talker but a deficit of 2.8 dB when the talker was sideways or behind the child. The overall directional effect in real life was between –0.4 and 0.2 dB.

Conclusions

The findings suggest that directional microphones in personal hearing devices for young children are not detrimental and have much potential for benefits in real life. The benefits may be enhanced by fitting directionality early and by counseling caregivers on ways to maximize benefits in everyday situations.

Tongue Movements During Water Swallowing in Healthy Young and Older Adults [Articles]

Steele, C. M., Van Lieshout, P. — Thu, 24 Sep 2009 08:26:02 PDT

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to explore the nature and extent of variability in tongue movement during healthy swallowing as a function of aging and gender. In addition, changes were quantified in healthy tongue movements in response to specific differences in the nature of the swallowing task (discrete vs. sequential swallows).

Method

Electromagnetic midsagittal articulography (EMMA) was used to study the swallowing-related movements of markers located in midline on the anterior (blade), middle (body), and posterior (dorsum) tongue in a sample of 34 healthy adults in 2 age groups (under vs. over 50 years of age). Participants performed a series of reiterated water swallows, in either a discrete or a sequential manner.

Results

This study shows that age-related changes in tongue movements during swallowing are restricted to the domain of movement duration. The authors confirm that different tongue regions can be selectively modulated during swallowing tasks and that both functional and anatomical constraints influence the manner in which tongue movement modulation occurs. Sequential swallowing, in comparison to discrete swallowing, elicits simplification or down-scaling of several kinematic parameters.

Conclusion

The data illustrate task-specific stereotyped patterns of tongue movement in swallowing, which are robust to the effects of healthy aging in all aspects other than movement duration.

Producing American English Vowels During Vocal Tract Growth: A Perceptual Categorization Study of Synthesized Vowels [Articles]

Menard, L., Davis, B. L., Boe, L.-J., Roy, J.-P. — Thu, 24 Sep 2009 08:26:02 PDT

Purpose

To consider interactions of vocal tract change with growth and perceived output patterns across development, the influence of nonuniform vocal tract growth on the ability to reach acoustic–perceptual targets for English vowels was studied.

Method

Thirty-seven American English speakers participated in a perceptual categorization experiment. For the experiment, an articulatory-to-acoustic model was used to synthesize 342 five-formant vowels, covering maximal vowel spaces for speakers at 5 growth stages (from 6 months old to adult).

Results

Results indicate that the 3 vowels /i u æ/ can be correctly perceived by adult listeners when produced by speakers with a 6-month-old vocal tract. Articulatory-to-acoustic relationships for these 3 vowels differ across growth stages. For a given perceived vowel category, the infant's tongue position is more fronted than the adult's. Furthermore, nonuniform vocal tract growth influences degree of interarticulator coupling for a given perceived vowel, leading to a reduced correlation between jaw height and tongue body position in infantlike compared with adult vocal tracts.

Conclusion

Findings suggest that nonuniform vocal tract growth does not prevent the speaker from producing acoustic–auditory targets related to American English vowels. However, the relationships between articulatory configurations and perceptual targets change from birth to adulthood.

Measurement of Speech Effort During Fluency-Inducing Conditions in Adults Who Do and Do Not Stutter [Articles]

Ingham, R. J., Bothe, A. K., Jang, E., Yates, L., Cotton, J., Seybold, I. — Thu, 24 Sep 2009 08:26:02 PDT

Purpose

To investigate the effects of 4 fluency-inducing (FI) conditions on self-rated speech effort and other variables in adults who stutter and in normally fluent controls.

Method

Twelve adults with persistent stuttering and 12 adults who had never stuttered each completed 4 ABA-format experiments. During A phases, participants read aloud normally. During each B phase, they read aloud in 1 of 4 FI conditions: auditory masking, chorus reading, whispering, and rhythmic speech. Dependent variables included self-judged speech effort and observer-judged stuttering frequency, speech rate, and speech naturalness.

Results

For the persons who stuttered, FI conditions reduced stuttering and speech effort, but only for chorus reading were these improvements obtained without diminishing speech naturalness or speaking rate. By contrast, speech effort increased during all FI conditions for adults who did not stutter.

Conclusions

Self-rated speech effort differentiated the effects of 4 FI conditions on speech performance for adults who stuttered, with chorus reading best approximating normally fluent speech. More generally, self-ratings of speech effort appeared to constitute an independent, reliable, and validly interpretable dimension of fluency that may be useful in the measurement and treatment of stuttering.

Developing the Communicative Participation Item Bank: Rasch Analysis Results From a Spasmodic Dysphonia Sample [Articles]

Baylor, C. R., Yorkston, K. M., Eadie, T. L., Miller, R. M., Amtmann, D. — Thu, 24 Sep 2009 08:26:02 PDT

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to conduct the initial psychometric analyses of the Communicative Participation Item Bank—a new self-report instrument designed to measure the extent to which communication disorders interfere with communicative participation. This item bank is intended for community-dwelling adults across a range of communication disorders.

Method

A set of 141 candidate items was administered to 208 adults with spasmodic dysphonia. Participants rated the extent to which their condition interfered with participation in various speaking communication situations. Questionnaires were administered online or in a paper version per participant preference. Participants also completed the Voice Handicap Index (B. H. Jacobson et al., 1997) and a demographic questionnaire. Rasch analyses were conducted using Winsteps software (J. M. Linacre, 1991).

Results

The results show that items functioned better when the 5-category response format was recoded to a 4-category format. After removing 8 items that did not fit the Rasch model, the remaining 133 items demonstrated strong evidence of sufficient unidimensionality, with the model accounting for 89.3% of variance. Item location values ranged from –2.73 to 2.20 logits.

Conclusions

Preliminary Rasch analyses of the Communicative Participation Item Bank show strong psychometric properties. Further testing in populations with other communication disorders is needed.

The Influence of Speaking Rate on Nasality in the Speech of Hearing-Impaired Individuals [Articles]

Dwyer, C. H., Robb, M. P., O'Beirne, G. A., Gilbert, H. R. — Thu, 24 Sep 2009 08:26:02 PDT

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to determine whether deliberate increases in speaking rate would serve to decrease the amount of nasality in the speech of severely hearing-impaired individuals.

Method

The participants were 11 severely to profoundly hearing-impaired students, ranging in age from 12 to 19 years (M = 16 years). Each participant provided a baseline speech sample (R1) followed by 3 training sessions during which participants were trained to increase their speaking rate. Following the training sessions, a second speech sample was obtained (R2). Acoustic and perceptual analyses of the speech samples obtained at R1 and R2 were undertaken. The acoustic analysis focused on changes in first (F₁) and second (F₂) formant frequency and formant bandwidths. The perceptual analysis involved listener ratings of the speech samples (at R1 and R2) for perceived nasality.

Results

Findings indicated a significant increase in speaking rate at R2. In addition, significantly narrower F₂ bandwidth and lower perceptual rating scores of nasality were obtained at R2 across all participants, suggesting a decrease in nasality as speaking rate increases.

Conclusion

The nasality demonstrated by hearing-impaired individuals is amenable to change when speaking rate is increased. The influences of speaking rate changes on the perception and production of nasality in hearing-impaired individuals are discussed.

Quantifying Speech Rhythm Abnormalities in the Dysarthrias [Articles]

Thu, 24 Sep 2009 08:26:02 PDT

Purpose

In this study, the authors examined whether rhythm metrics capable of distinguishing languages with high and low temporal stress contrast also can distinguish among control and dysarthric speakers of American English with perceptually distinct rhythm patterns.

Methods

Acoustic measures of vocalic and consonantal segment durations were obtained for speech samples from 55 speakers across 5 groups (hypokinetic, hyperkinetic, flaccid-spastic, ataxic dysarthrias, and controls). Segment durations were used to calculate standard and new rhythm metrics. Discriminant function analyses (DFAs) were used to determine which sets of predictor variables (rhythm metrics) best discriminated between groups (control vs. dysarthrias; and among the 4 dysarthrias). A cross-validation method was used to test the robustness of each original DFA.

Results

The majority of classification functions were more than 80% successful in classifying speakers into their appropriate group. New metrics that combined successive vocalic and consonantal segments emerged as important predictor variables. DFAs pitting each dysarthria group against the combined others resulted in unique constellations of predictor variables that yielded high levels of classification accuracy.

Conclusions

This study confirms the ability of rhythm metrics to distinguish control speech from dysarthrias and to discriminate dysarthria subtypes. Rhythm metrics show promise for use as a rational and objective clinical tool.

Nonparticipatory Stiffness in the Male Perioral Complex [Research Note]

Chu, S.-Y., Barlow, S. M., Lee, J. — Thu, 24 Sep 2009 08:26:02 PDT

Purpose

The objective of this study was to extend previous published findings in the authors' laboratory using a new automated technology to quantitatively characterize nonparticipatory perioral stiffness in healthy male adults.

Method

Quantitative measures of perioral stiffness were sampled during a nonparticipatory task using a computer-controlled linear servo motor to impose a series of tensile displacements over a span of approximately 24 mm at the oral angle in 20 healthy young male adults. Perioral electromyograms were simultaneously sampled to confirm nonparticipation or passive muscle state. Perioral stiffness, derived as a quotient from resultant force (F) and oral span (X), was modeled with regression techniques and subsequently compared to previously reported perioral stiffness data for female adults.

Results

Multilevel regression analysis revealed a significant quadratic relation between the perioral stiffness and interangle span; however, no significant difference was found between adult males and females.

Conclusion

These normative measures will have application to future studies designed to objectively assess the effects of pathology (i.e., progressive neuromotor disease, traumatic brain insult) and intervention (pharmacologic, neurosurgical, and reconstructive surgery of the face [i.e., cleft lip, trauma, missile injuries]) on facial animation and speech kinematics.

Development and Perceptual Evaluation of Amplitude-Based F0 Control in Electrolarynx Speech [Research Note]

Saikachi, Y., Stevens, K. N., Hillman, R. E. — Thu, 24 Sep 2009 08:26:02 PDT

Purpose

Current electrolarynx (EL) devices produce a mechanical speech quality that has been largely attributed to the lack of natural fundamental frequency (F0) variation. In order to improve the quality of EL speech, in the present study the authors aimed to develop and evaluate an automatic F0 control scheme, in which F0 was modulated based on variations in the root-mean-square (RMS) amplitude of the EL speech signal.

Method

Recordings of declarative sentences produced by 2 male participants before and after total laryngectomy were used to develop procedures for calculating F0 contours for EL speech. Specifically, the positive linear relationship between F0 and RMS amplitude observed in pre-laryngectomy speech was used as the basis for generating an F0 contour based on the amplitude variation of EL speech. An analysis-by-synthesis approach was used to modify the F0 contour, and a perceptual experiment was conducted to examine its impact on the quality of the EL speech.

Results

The results of perceptual experiments showed that modulating the F0 of EL speech using a linear relationship between amplitude and frequency made it significantly more natural sounding than EL speech with constant F0.

Conclusions

The current study provides preliminary support for amplitude-based control of F0 in EL speech.

Direct Magnitude Estimation of Articulation Rate in Boys With Fragile X Syndrome [Research Note]

Zajac, D. J., Harris, A. A., Roberts, J. E., Martin, G. E. — Thu, 24 Sep 2009 08:26:02 PDT

Purpose

To compare the perceived articulation rate of boys with fragile X syndrome (FXS) with that of chronologically age-matched (CA) boys and to determine segmental and/or prosodic factors that account for perceived rate.

Method

Ten listeners used direct magnitude estimation procedures to judge the articulation rates of 7 boys with FXS only, 5 boys with FXS and a diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and 12 CA boys during sentence repetition. Sentences had similar articulation rates in syllables per second as determined acoustically. Four segmental/prosodic factors were used to predict perceived rate: (a) percentage consonants correct, (b) overall fundamental frequency (F₀) level, (c) sentence-final F₀ drop, and (d) acoustically determined articulation rate with the final word of the sentence excluded.

Results

Boys with FXS and ASD were judged to talk faster than CA controls. Multiple linear regression indicated that articulation rate with the final word of the sentence excluded and sentence-final F₀ drop accounted for 91% of the variance for perceived rate.

Conclusions

Descriptions of speakers with FXS as having fast and/or fluctuating articulation rates may be influenced by autism status. Also, atypical sentence-final prosody may be related to perceived rate in boys with FXS and ASD.

In Memoriam: Thomas J. Hixon, PhD [Editor's Page]

Wed, 29 Jul 2009 08:47:58 PDT

Speech Restoration: An Interactive Process [Articles]

Grataloup, C., Hoen, M., Veuillet, E., Collet, L., Pellegrino, F., Meunier, F. — Wed, 29 Jul 2009 08:47:58 PDT

Purpose

This study investigates the ability to understand degraded speech signals and explores the correlation between this capacity and the functional characteristics of the peripheral auditory system.

Method

The authors evaluated the capability of 50 normal-hearing native French speakers to restore time-reversed speech. The task required them to transcribe two-syllable items containing temporal reversions of variable sizes, ranging from no reversion to complete reversion, increasing by half-syllable steps. In parallel, the functionality of each participant's auditory efferent system was evaluated using contralateral suppression of click-evoked otoacoustic emissions.

Results

Perceptual accuracy for time-reversed speech diminished when the size of the applied temporal distortion increased. A lexical benefit was evident, and an important interindividual variability in performance was observed. Functional exploration of the auditory system revealed that speech restoration performances correlated with the suppression strength of the participant's auditory efferent system.

Conclusions

These results suggest a clear relation between the functional asymmetry of the auditory efferent pathway (the right-side activity is greater than the left-side activity in right-handed participants) and the comprehension of acoustically distorted speech in normal-hearing participants. Further experiments are needed to better specify how the functionality of the medial olivocochlear bundle can cause phonological activation to be more efficient.

African American English-Speaking Students: An Examination of the Relationship Between Dialect Shifting and Reading Outcomes [Articles]

Craig, H. K., Zhang, L., Hensel, S. L., Quinn, E. J. — Wed, 29 Jul 2009 08:47:58 PDT

Purpose

In this study, the authors evaluated the contribution made by dialect shifting to reading achievement test scores of African American English (AAE)–speaking students when controlling for the effects of socioeconomic status (SES), general oral language abilities, and writing skills.

Method

Participants were 165 typically developing African American 1st through 5th graders. Half were male and half were female, one third were from low-SES homes, and two-thirds were from middle-SES homes. Dialect shifting away from AAE toward Standard American English (SAE) was determined by comparing AAE production rates during oral and written narratives. Structural equation modeling evaluated the relative contributions of AAE rates, SES, and general oral language and writing skills on standardized reading achievement scores.

Results

AAE production rates were inversely related to reading achievement scores and decreased significantly between the oral and written narratives. Lower rates in writing predicted a substantial amount of the variance in reading scores, showing a significant direct effect and a significant indirect effect mediated by measures of oral language comprehension.

Conclusion

The findings support a dialect shifting–reading achievement hypothesis, which proposes that AAE-speaking students who learn to use SAE in literacy tasks will outperform their peers who do not make this linguistic adaptation.

School-Age Children Talk About Chess: Does Knowledge Drive Syntactic Complexity? [Articles]

Nippold, M. A. — Wed, 29 Jul 2009 08:47:58 PDT

Purpose

This study examined language productivity and syntactic complexity in school-age children in relation to their knowledge of the topic of discussion—the game of chess.

Method

Children (N = 32; mean age = 10;11 [years;months]) who played chess volunteered to be interviewed by an adult examiner who had little or no experience playing chess. Children's chess knowledge and experience was assessed, and each child was classified as a novice or an expert player. Each child participated in 3 speaking tasks: General Conversation, Chess Conversation, and Chess Explanation. Interviews were audiorecorded, transcribed into Systematic Analysis of Language Transcripts (J. F. Miller & R. Chapman, 2003), segmented into T-units, and coded for finite clauses. Each speaking task was analyzed for total T-units; mean length of T-unit; clausal density; and nominal, relative, and adverbial clause use.

Results

Total T-units, mean length of T-unit, clausal density, and the use of each type of subordinate clause was substantially higher in the Chess Explanation task compared with the Chess Conversation task or the General Conversation task. Compared with the novices, the experts knew more about chess, had played longer, and were stronger players. Nevertheless, the novices and experts did not differ on any of the language factors for any of the speaking tasks.

Conclusions

Language productivity and syntactic complexity in school-age children are strongly influenced by the speaking task. When children are presented with a motivating and challenging topic, they rise to the occasion to explain the finer details of it to a naïve adult.

The Diagnostic Accuracy of a New Test of Early Nonword Repetition for Differentiating Late Talking and Typically Developing Children [Articles]

Stokes, S. F., Klee, T. — Wed, 29 Jul 2009 08:47:58 PDT

Purpose

To assess the diagnostic accuracy of a new Test of Early Nonword Repetition (TENR) for 2-year-old children.

Method

232 British-English-speaking children aged 27 (±3) months were assessed on 3 standardized tests (receptive and expressive vocabulary and visual processing) and a novel nonword repetition (NWR) test. Parents completed a British adaptation of the MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventory: Words and Sentences (CDI:WS–UK; Klee & Harrison, 2001). The diagnostic accuracy of two versions (1–3 syllables and 1–4 syllables) of a new NWR test was examined. Standard diagnostic accuracy measures of sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative likelihood ratios, and diagnostic odds ratios were generated.

Results

177 children (80%) completed the 1–3 syllable task, and 96 children (73%) completed the 1–4 syllable task. The 1–3 syllable version produced a positive likelihood ratio (LR+) of 7.8 (confidence interval [CI] = 4.5–13.6) and a negative likelihood ratio (LR–) of .28 (CI = .12–.65). The 1–4 syllable version of the NWR test produced a LR+ of 14.88 (CI = 6.1–36.2) and a LR– of .13 (CI = .02–.83).

Conclusion

The TENR could be useful for identifying 2-year-old children at risk of language impairment.

The Expressive Elaboration of Imaginative Narratives by Children With Specific Language Impairment [Articles]

Ukrainetz, T. A., Gillam, R. B. — Wed, 29 Jul 2009 08:47:58 PDT

Purpose

This study investigated the expressive elaboration of narratives from children with specific language impairment (SLI).

Method

Forty-eight 6- and 8-year-old children with SLI were compared with forty-eight 6- and 8-year-old typical language (TL) children. Two imaginative narratives were scored for 14 elements of expressive elaboration in 3 categories. A subset of simple elements was analyzed separately. The effect of adult models and context was also considered.

Results

Children with SLI (whether 6 or 8 years of age) and younger TL children produced stories with significantly fewer appendages (e.g., Abstract, Coda), orientations (e.g., name, personality feature), and evaluations (e.g., interesting modifier, dialogue) than older TL children. The children with SLI and younger children showed significantly poorer performance even on simple elements such as character names and repetition (He ran and ran). Children with SLI, although performing lower than their TL age peers, demonstrated improvements from the 1st to the 2nd fictional story. Children with SLI were not differentially affected by the adult models.

Conclusion

This study shows that expressive elaboration of narratives is sensitive to age- and language-level differences. The results suggest that children with SLI need guidance on artful storytelling, even for simple story elements.

On the Sensitivity and Specificity of Nonword Repetition and Sentence Recall to Language and Memory Impairments in Children [Articles]

Archibald, L. M. D., Joanisse, M. F. — Wed, 29 Jul 2009 08:47:58 PDT

Purpose

The present study examined the utility of 2 measures proposed as markers of specific language impairment (SLI) in identifying specific impairments in language or working memory in school-age children.

Method

A group of 400 school-age children completed a 5-min screening consisting of nonword repetition and sentence recall. A subset of low (n = 52) and average (n = 38) scorers completed standardized tests of language, short-term and working memory, and nonverbal intelligence.

Results

Approximately equal numbers of children were identified with specific impairments in either language or working memory. A group about twice as large had deficits in both language and working memory. Sensitivity of the screening measure for both SLI and specific working memory impairments was 84% or greater, although specificity was closer to 50%. Sentence recall performance below the 10th percentile was associated with sensitivity and specificity values above 80% for SLI.

Conclusions

Developmental deficits may be specific to language or working memory, or include impairments in both areas. Sentence recall is a useful clinical marker of SLI and combined language and working memory impairments.

Sustained Attention in Children With Specific Language Impairment (SLI) [Articles]

Finneran, D. A., Francis, A. L., Leonard, L. B. — Wed, 29 Jul 2009 08:47:58 PDT

Purpose

Information-processing limitations have been associated with language problems in children with specific language impairment (SLI). These processing limitations may be associated with limitations in attentional capacity, even in the absence of clinically significant attention deficits. In this study, the authors examined the performance of 4- to 6-year-old children with SLI and their typically developing (TD) peers on a visual sustained attention task. It was predicted that the children with SLI would demonstrate lower levels of performance in the absence of clinically significant attention deficits.

Method

A visual continuous performance task (CPT) was used to assess sustained attention in 13 children with SLI (M = 62.07 months) and 13 TD age-matched controls (M = 62.92 months). All children were screened for normal vision, hearing, and attention. Accuracy (d') and response time were analyzed to see if this sustained attention task could differentiate between the 2 groups.

Results

The children with SLI were significantly less accurate but not significantly slower than the TD children on this test of visual sustained attention.

Conclusion

Children with SLI may have reduced capacity for sustained attention in the absence of clinically significant attention deficits that, over time, could contribute to language learning difficulties.

The Growth of Tense Productivity [Articles]

Rispoli, M., Hadley, P. A., Holt, J. K. — Wed, 29 Jul 2009 08:47:59 PDT

Purpose

This study tests empirical predictions of a maturational model for the growth of tense in children younger than 36 months using a type-based productivity measure.

Method

Caregiver–child language samples were collected from 20 typically developing children every 3 months from 21 to 33 months of age. Growth in the productivity of tense morphemes, centered at 21 months, was examined using hierarchical linear modeling. The empirical Bayes residuals from 21- to 30-month productivity growth trajectories predicted children's accuracy of tense marking at 33 months.

Results

A random effects quadratic growth model with no intercept best characterized the growth of tense marking between 21 and 30 months. Average development was characterized by slow instantaneous linear growth of less than 1 morpheme per month at 21 months and acceleration overall. Significant variation around this trend was also evident. Children's linear and quadratic empirical Bayes residuals together predicted 33-month accuracy scores (r = .672, p = .008).

Conclusions

Acceleration and variation about this trend are consistent with maturational models of language acquisition. With an empirically sound characterization of early variation in morphosyntactic growth rates, future investigations can more rigorously test hypotheses regarding biological, environmental, and developmental contributions to the acquisition of morphosyntax.

Perceptual Consequences of Changes in Vocoded Speech Parameters in Various Reverberation Conditions [Articles]

Drgas, S., Blaszak, M. A. — Wed, 29 Jul 2009 08:47:59 PDT

Purpose

To study the perceptual consequences of changes in parameters of vocoded speech in various reverberation conditions.

Method

The 3 controlled variables were number of vocoder bands, instantaneous frequency change rate, and reverberation conditions. The effects were quantified in terms of (a) nonsense words' recognition scores for young normal-hearing listeners, (b) ease of listening based on the time of response (response delay), and (c) the subjective measure of difficulty (10-degree scale).

Results

It has been shown that the fine structure of a signal is a relevant cue in speech perception in reverberation conditions. The results obtained for different number of bands, frequency-modulation cutoff frequencies, and reverberation conditions have shown that all these parameters are important for speech perception in reverberation.

Conclusions

Only slow variations in the instantaneous frequency (<50 Hz) seem to play a critical role in speech intelligibility in anechoic conditions. In reverberant enclosures, however, fast fluctuations of instantaneous frequency are also significant.

Associations and Dissociations Between Psychoacoustic Abilities and Speech Perception in Adolescents With Severe-to-Profound Hearing Loss [Articles]

Kishon-Rabin, L., Segal, O., Algom, D. — Wed, 29 Jul 2009 08:47:59 PDT

Purpose

To clarify the relationship between psychoacoustic capabilities and speech perception in adolescents with severe-to-profound hearing loss (SPHL).

Method

Twenty-four adolescents with SPHL and young adults with normal hearing were assessed with psychoacoustic and speech perception tests. The psychoacoustic tests included gap detection (GD), difference limen for frequency, and psychoacoustic-tuning curves. To assess the perception of words that differ in spectral and temporal cues, the speech tests included the Hebrew Early Speech Perception test and the Hebrew Speech Pattern Contrast test (L. Kishon-Rabin et al., 2002). All tests were conducted for the listeners with normal hearing at low and high presentation levels and for the participants with SPHL at 20 dB SL.

Results

Only GD thresholds were comparable across the 2 groups at similar presentation levels. Psychoacoustic performance was poorer in the group with SPHL, but only selected tests were correlated with speech perception. Poor GD was associated with pattern perception, 1-syllable word identification, and final voicing subtests.

Conclusions

Speech perception performance in adolescents with SPHL could not be predicted solely on the basis of spectral and temporal capabilities of the auditory system. However, when the GD threshold was greater than 40 ms, speech perception skills were predictable by psychoacoustic abilities.

Prevalence of Hearing Loss in Black and White Elders: Results of the Cardiovascular Health Study [Articles]

Pratt, S. R., Kuller, L., Talbott, E. O., McHugh-Pemu, K., Buhari, A. M., Xu, X. — Wed, 29 Jul 2009 08:47:59 PDT

Purpose

The goal of this study was to determine the impact of age, gender, and race on the prevalence and severity of hearing loss in elder adults, aged 72–96 years, after accounting for income, education, smoking, and clinical and subclinical cardiovascular disease.

Methods

Air-conduction thresholds for standard and extended high-frequency pure-tones were obtained from a cohort of 548 (out of 717) elderly adults (ages 72–96 years) who were recruited during the Year 11 clinical visit (1999–2000) of the Cardiovascular Health Study (CHS) at the Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania site. Participant smoking, income, education, and cardiovascular disease histories were obtained from the CHS database and were included as factors.

Results

Hearing loss was more common and more severe for the participants in their 80s than for those in their 70s—the men more than the women and the White participants more than the Black participants. The inclusion of education, income, smoking, and cardiovascular disease (clinical and subclinical) histories as factors did not substantively impact the overall results.

Conclusion

Although the data reported in this article were cross-sectional and a cohort phenomenon might have been operational, they suggested that hearing loss is more substantive in the 8th than the 7th decade of life and that race and gender influence this decline in audition. Given the high prevalence in the aging population and the differences across groups, there is a clear need to understand the nature and causes of hearing loss across various groups in order to improve prevention and develop appropriate interventions.

Refinement of Speech Breathing in Healthy 4- to 6-Year-Old Children [Articles and Reports]

Boliek, C. A., Hixon, T. J., Watson, P. J., Jones, P. B. — Wed, 29 Jul 2009 08:47:59 PDT

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to offer a better understanding of the development of neuromotor control for speech breathing and provide a normative data set that can serve as a useful standard for clinical evaluation and management of young children with speech disorders involving the breathing subsystem.

Method

Speech breathing was studied in 60 healthy children, including 10 boys and 10 girls, each at ages 4, 5, and 6 years. A variable inductance plethysmograph was used to obtain volume changes of the rib cage, abdomen, and lung as well as temporal features of the breathing cycle.

Results

Results indicated that breathing behavior was influenced by height and age but not gender. Some speech breathing behaviors were found to be highly variable, whereas others were more systematic.

Conclusions

The data from this investigation demonstrate that the refinement of the speech breathing mechanism is gradual and presumably takes place from approximately 3–10 years of age. The rate of change associated with speech breathing parallels that observed in other subsystems of speech production.

A Rat Excised Larynx Model of Vocal Fold Scar [Articles and Reports]

Wed, 29 Jul 2009 08:47:59 PDT

Purpose

To develop and evaluate a rat excised larynx model for the measurement of acoustic, aerodynamic, and vocal fold vibratory changes resulting from vocal fold scar.

Method

Twenty-four 4-month-old male Sprague–Dawley rats were assigned to 1 of 4 experimental groups: chronic vocal fold scar, chronic vocal fold scar treated with 100-ng basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), chronic vocal fold scar treated with saline (sham treatment), and unscarred untreated control. Following tissue harvest, histological and immunohistochemical data were collected to confirm extracellular matrix alteration in the chronic scar group; acoustic, aerodynamic, and high-speed digital imaging data were collected using an excised larynx setup in all groups. Phonation threshold pressure (P_th), glottal resistance (R_g), glottal efficiency (E_g), vibratory amplitude, and vibratory area were used as dependent variables.

Results

Chronically scarred vocal folds were characterized by elevated collagen Types I and III and reduced hyaluronic acid abundance. Phonation was achieved, and data were collected from all control and bFGF-treated larynges; however, phonation was not achieved with 3 of 6 chronically scarred and 1 of 6 saline-treated larynges. Compared with control, the chronic scar group was characterized by elevated P_th, reduced E_g, and intralarynx vibratory amplitude and area asymmetry. The bFGF group was characterized by P_th below control-group levels, E_g comparable with control, and vocal fold vibratory amplitude and area symmetry comparable with control. The sham group was characterized by P_th comparable with control, E_g superior to control, and vocal fold vibratory amplitude and area symmetry comparable with control.

Conclusions

The excised larynx model reported here demonstrated robust deterioration across phonatory indices under the scar condition and sensitivity to treatment-induced change under the bFGF condition. The improvement observed under the sham condition may reflect unanticipated therapeutic benefit or artifact. This model holds promise as a tool for the functional characterization of biomechanical tissue changes resulting from vocal fold scar and the evaluation of experimental therapies.

Effects of Loud and Amplified Speech on Sentence and Word Intelligibility in Parkinson Disease [Articles and Reports]

Neel, A. T. — Wed, 29 Jul 2009 08:47:59 PDT

Purpose

In the two experiments in this study, the author examined the effects of increased vocal effort (loud speech) and amplification on sentence and word intelligibility in speakers with Parkinson disease (PD).

Methods

Five talkers with PD produced sentences and words at habitual levels of effort and using loud speech techniques. Amplified sets of sentences and words were created by increasing the intensity of habitual stimuli to the level of loud stimuli. Listeners rated the intelligibility of the 3 sets of sentences on a 1–7 scale and transcribed the 3 sets of words.

Results

Both loud speech and amplification significantly improved intelligibility for sentences and words. Loud speech resulted in greater intelligibility improvement than amplification.

Conclusions

By comparing loud and amplified scores, about one third to one half of intelligibility improvement with loud speech could be attributed to increases in audibility or signal-to-noise ratio. Thus, factors other than increased intensity must be partly responsible for the loud speech benefit. Changes in articulation appear to play a relatively small role: Initial /h/ was the only consonant to consistently show improvement with loud speech. Phonatory changes such as improvements in F₀ and spectral tilt may account for improved speech intelligibility using loud speech techniques.

Effects of Directional Exercise on Lingual Strength [Articles and Reports]

Clark, H. M., O'Brien, K., Calleja, A., Newcomb Corrie, S. — Wed, 29 Jul 2009 08:47:59 PDT

Purpose

To examine the application of known muscle training principles to tongue strengthening exercises and to answer the following research questions: (a) Did lingual strength increase following 9 weeks of training? (b) Did training conducted using an exercise moving the tongue in one direction result in strength changes for tongue movements in other directions? (c) Were differential training effects observed for participants completing exercises sequentially (in isolation) versus concurrently (several exercises in combination)? (d) Were strength gains maintained after exercise was discontinued?

Methods

Participants were 39 healthy adults assigned to sequential or concurrent lingual strength training. Lingual exercise (elevation, protrusion, and/or lateralization) was conducted for 9 weeks, with lingual strength and cheek strength (control variable) assessed weekly.

Results

All lingual strength measures increased with training, but cheek strength remained unchanged. Training effects were not related to training condition (sequential vs. concurrent), nor were specificity effects observed for direction of exercise. Significant decreases in lingual strength were noted 2–4 weeks after exercise was discontinued.

Conclusions

The findings replicate those of earlier studies demonstrating that lingual strength may be increased with a variety of exercise protocols and confirm that detraining effects may be observed when training is discontinued. The findings further suggest that the lingual musculature may demonstrate less dramatic training specificity than what has been reported for skeletal muscles.

Phonological Accuracy and Intelligibility in Connected Speech of Boys With Fragile X Syndrome or Down Syndrome [Articles and Reports]

Wed, 29 Jul 2009 08:47:59 PDT

Purpose

To compare the phonological accuracy and speech intelligibility of boys with fragile X syndrome with autism spectrum disorder (FXS-ASD), fragile X syndrome only (FXS-O), Down syndrome (DS), and typically developing (TD) boys.

Method

Participants were 32 boys with FXS-O (3–14 years), 31 with FXS-ASD (5–15 years), 34 with DS (4–16 years), and 45 TD boys of similar nonverbal mental age. We used connected speech samples to compute measures of phonological accuracy, phonological process occurrence, and intelligibility.

Results

The boys with FXS, regardless of autism status, did not differ from TD boys on phonological accuracy and phonological process occurrence but produced fewer intelligible words than did TD boys. The boys with DS scored lower on measures of phonological accuracy and occurrence of phonological processes than all other groups and used fewer intelligible words than did TD boys. The boys with FXS and the boys with DS did not differ on measures of intelligibility.

Conclusions

Boys with FXS, regardless of autism status, exhibited phonological characteristics similar to those of younger TD children but were less intelligible in connected speech. Boys with DS showed greater delays in all phonological measures than the boys with FXS and the TD boys.

Phonation Threshold Pressure Measurement With a Semi-Occluded Vocal Tract [Articles and Reports]

Titze, I. R. — Wed, 29 Jul 2009 08:47:59 PDT

Purpose

The purpose of this article was to determine if a semi-occluded vocal tract could be used to measure phonation threshold pressure. This is in contrast to the shutter technique, where an alternation between a fully occluded tract and an unoccluded tract is used.

Method

Five male and 5 female volunteers phonated through a thin straw held between the lips. Oral pressure behind the lips was measured. Mathematical predictions of phonation threshold pressures were compared to the measured ones over a range of frequencies.

Results

It was shown that, for a 2.5-mm diameter straw, phonation threshold pressures were obtainable over a 2-octave range of fundamental frequency by all volunteers. In magnitude, the pressures agreed with the 0.2–0.5 kPa values obtained in previous investigations. Sensitivity to viscoelastic and geometric properties of the vocal folds was generally not compromised with greater oral impedance, but some differences were predicted theoretically in contrast to an open mouth configuration.

Conclusion

Because phonation threshold pressure is always dependent on vocal tract interaction, it may be advantageous to choose an exact and fixed oral semi-occlusion for the measurement and interpret the results in light of the known acoustic load.

Auditory Event-Related Potentials (ERPs) in Audiovisual Speech Perception [Research Note]

Pilling, M. — Wed, 29 Jul 2009 08:47:59 PDT

Purpose

It has recently been reported (e.g., V. van Wassenhove, K. W. Grant, & D. Poeppel, 2005) that audiovisual (AV) presented speech is associated with an N1/P2 auditory event-related potential (ERP) response that is lower in peak amplitude compared with the responses associated with auditory only (AO) speech. This effect was replicated. Further comparisons were made between ERP responses to AV speech in which the visual and auditory components were in or out of synchrony, to test whether the effect is associated with the operation of integration mechanisms, as has been claimed, or occurs because of other factors such as attention.

Method

ERPs were recorded from participants presented with recordings of unimodal or AV speech syllables in a detection task.

Results

Comparisons were made between AO and AV speech and between synchronous and asynchronous AV speech. Synchronous AV speech produced an N1/P2 with lower peak amplitudes than with AO speech, unaccounted for by linear superposition of visually evoked responses onto auditory-evoked responses. Asynchronous AV speech produced no amplitude reduction.

Conclusion

The dependence of N1/P2 amplitude reduction on AV synchrony validates it as an electrophysiological marker of AV integration.

Safety of Electromagnetic Articulography in Patients With Pacemakers and Implantable Cardioverter-Defibrillators [Research Note]

Joglar, J. A., Nguyen, C., Garst, D. M., Katz, W. F. — Wed, 29 Jul 2009 08:47:59 PDT

Purpose

Electromagnetic articulography (EMA) uses a helmet to create alternating magnetic fields for tracking speech articulator movement. An important safety consideration is whether EMA magnetic fields interfere with the operation of speakers' pacemakers or implantable cardioverter-defibrillators (ICDs). In this investigation, individuals with pacemaker/ICD devices were exposed to EMA fields under controlled conditions while potential interference was examined.

Method

Twelve adults with pacemaker/ICD devices from 3 major manufacturers were assessed for device function before, during, and after exposure to magnetic fields from a Carstens AG100 EMA system. Potential interference was probed, with EMA transmitters positioned at varying distances from the implantable devices and with the EMA system set at different operating strengths.

Results

No adverse affects in device operation were observed under any conditions. The only potential complication was temporary telemetry-link interference during device testing in some cases.

Conclusion

The results suggest that EMA technology may be safely used with patients who have pacemakers and ICDs. However, the present findings do not rule out potential interference with other pacemaker/ICD manufacturers or with different articulography systems. Precautions are suggested for testing individuals with pacemaker/ICDs under EMA conditions.

Comparison of Acoustic and Kinematic Approaches to Measuring Utterance-Level Speech Variability [Research Note]

Howell, P., Anderson, A. J., Bartrip, J., Bailey, E. — Wed, 29 Jul 2009 08:47:59 PDT

Purpose

The spatiotemporal index (STI) is one measure of variability. As currently implemented, kinematic data are used, requiring equipment that cannot be used with some patient groups or in scanners. An experiment is reported that addressed whether STI can be extended to an audio measure of sound pressure of the speech envelope over time that did not need specialized equipment.

Method

STI indices of variability were obtained from lip track (L-STI) and amplitude envelope (E-STI) signals. These measures were made concurrent while either fluent speakers or speakers who stutter repeated "Buy Bobby a puppy" 20 times.

Results

L-STI and E-STI correlated significantly. STI decreased with age for both L-STI and E-STI. E-STI scores and L-STI scores discriminated successfully between fluent speakers and speakers who stutter.

Conclusion

The amplitude-envelope-over-time signal can be used to obtain an STI score. This STI score can be used in situations where lip movement STI scores are precluded.

Erratum [Errata]

Bertoncini, J., Serniclaes, W., Lorenzi, C. — Wed, 29 Jul 2009 08:47:59 PDT

Erratum [Errata]

Lim, V. P. C., Lincoln, M., Chan, Y. H., Onslow, M. — Wed, 29 Jul 2009 08:47:59 PDT