Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research recent issues

Resilience and Stuttering: Factors That Protect People From the Adversity of Chronic Stuttering [Article]

Craig, A., Blumgart, E., Tran, Y. — 2011-12-16T09:11:37-08:00

Purpose

Chronic disorder can impose a significant negative mental health burden. This research was conducted to explore factors that may protect people from the adversity of chronic stuttering.

Method

The study employed a population group cohort design. Participants included 200 adults who have stuttered since childhood, and the sample was divided into those who were classified as resilient and nonresilient on the basis of their global psychopathology scores. Protective factor differences between the 2 groups were determined using multivariate analysis of variance and unique contributors to psychopathology were isolated using multiple regression.

Results

Factors that significantly distinguished between groups included superior levels of health status, social support, vitality and social functioning, fewer physical limitations, and a greater sense of self-efficacy. Three unique contributors to adaptive outcomes were found: self-efficacy, social support, and healthy social functioning.

Conclusions

A number of factors were isolated that potentially protect individuals with chronic stuttering from developing psychopathology. The findings provide a better understanding of how people cope with a chronic fluency disorder.

Teledynamic Evaluation of Oropharyngeal Swallowing [Article]

Malandraki, G. A., McCullough, G., He, X., McWeeny, E., Perlman, A. L. — 2011-12-16T09:11:37-08:00

Purpose

The objective of the present investigation was to test the feasibility and clinical utility of a real-time Internet-based protocol for remote, telefluoroscopic evaluation of oropharyngeal swallowing.

Method

In this prospective cohort study, the authors evaluated 32 patients with a primary diagnosis of stroke or head/neck cancer. All patients participated in 2 separate fluoroscopic swallowing evaluations—one traditional on site and one telefluoroscopic off site—through the use of a telemedicine system. Agreement between sites was tested for 3 categories of variables: (a) overall severity of swallowing difficulty, (b) presence and extent of laryngeal penetration and aspiration as rated by the 8-point Penetration-Aspiration scale, and (c) treatment recommendations.

Results

Results showed overall good agreement in subjective severity ratings ( = 0.636) and in Penetration-Aspiration scale ratings (mean absolute difference = 1.1 points) between the onsite and offsite clinicians. Agreement in treatment recommendations was moderate to high, ranging from 69.3% to 100%.

Conclusions

The present study supports the feasibility and clinical utility of a telemedicine system for evaluating oropharyngeal swallowing. Given the difficulty and expertise needed to complete such evaluations, this study offers promising clinical avenues for patients in rural, remote, and underserved communities and countries where expert swallowing specialists are not available.

Cross-Language Differences in Informational Masking of Speech by Speech: English Versus Mandarin Chinese [Article]

Wu, X., Yang, Z., Huang, Y., Chen, J., Li, L., Daneman, M., Schneider, B. A. — 2011-12-16T09:11:37-08:00

Purpose

The purpose of the study was to determine why perceived spatial separation provides a greater release from informational masking in Chinese than English when target sentences in each of the languages are masked by other talkers speaking the same language.

Method

Monolingual speakers of English and Mandarin Chinese listened to semantically anomalous sentences in their own language when 1 of 3 maskers was present (speech-spectrum noise, a 2-talker speech masker in the same language, and a 2-talker speech masker in the other language).

Results

Both groups benefitted equally from spatial separation when the maskers were speech-spectrum noise or cross-language. Chinese listeners benefitted less from spatial separation than did English listeners when a same-language masker was used. Performance was scored in terms of the number of target words correctly identified; because Chinese target words were composed of 2 "stand-alone" morphemes, the authors also scored Chinese target words as correct when either of the morphemes was correctly identified. When this was done, Chinese and English listeners benefitted equally from spatial separation in all conditions.

Conclusion

These results support a model in which release from informational masking in both monolingual English and Chinese listeners occurs because spatial separation facilitates morpheme access in both languages.

Use of Spectral/Cepstral Analyses for Differentiating Normal From Hypofunctional Voices in Sustained Vowel and Continuous Speech Contexts [Article]

Watts, C. R., Awan, S. N. — 2011-12-16T09:11:37-08:00

Purpose

In this study, the authors evaluated the diagnostic value of spectral/cepstral measures to differentiate dysphonic from nondysphonic voices using sustained vowels and continuous speech samples.

Methodology

Thirty-two age- and gender-matched individuals (16 participants with dysphonia and 16 controls) were recorded reading a standard passage (The Rainbow Passage; Fairbanks, 1960) and sustaining the vowel /a/. Recorded voices were analyzed with custom software that calculated 4 spectral/cepstral measures.

Results

Measures of cepstral peak prominence (CPP) and low–high spectral ratio (L/H ratio) were significantly different between groups in both speaking conditions; the standard deviation of the CPP was significantly different between groups in continuous speech only. In differentiating dysphonic individuals with a hypofunctional etiology from nondysphonic individuals, receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analyses demonstrated (a) high sensitivity and high specificity for the CPP in the sustained vowel condition and (b) high sensitivity and moderate specificity for the CPP in the speech condition.

Conclusions

In a sample of dysphonic speakers (hypofunctional etiologies) versus typical speakers, spectral/cepstral measures of CPP and L/H ratio were able to differentiate these groups from one another in both vowel prolongation and continuous speech contexts with high sensitivity and specificity. The results of this study support the growing body of literature documenting the significant value of cepstral and other spectral-based acoustic measures to the clinical evaluation and management processes.

Three-Dimensional Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Velopharyngeal Structures [Research Note]

Bae, Y., Kuehn, D. P., Sutton, B. P., Conway, C. A., Perry, J. L. — 2011-12-16T09:11:37-08:00

Purpose

To report the feasibility of using a 3-dimensional (3D) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) protocol for examining velopharyngeal structures. Using collected 3D MRI data, the authors investigated the effect of sex on the midsagittal velopharyngeal structures and the levator veli palatini (levator) muscle configurations.

Method

Ten Caucasian healthy adults (5 women and 5 men) participated. A whole-head 3D MRI scan was obtained while participants were at rest in the supine position. Basic anatomic parameters of the velopharynx including midsagittal velopharyngeal structures and levator muscle configurations were compared between sexes.

Results

Detailed information on the 3D MRI protocol and data analysis method was introduced in the study. On the basis of the data, only the length of the levator muscle showed a statistically significant sex difference: Male participants had significantly longer levator muscles than those of female participants.

Conclusions

The present study successfully demonstrated the use of 3D MRI in quantifying major velopharyngeal structures and provided additional data on the anatomic variations that exist in healthy adult individuals.

The Effects of Race and Maternal Education Level on Children's Retells of the Renfrew Bus Story--North American Edition [Article]

van Kleeck, A., Lange, A., Schwarz, A. L. — 2011-12-16T09:11:37-08:00

Purpose

The Renfrew Bus Story—North American Edition (RBS–NA; C. Glasgow & J. Cowley, 1994) is widely used in clinical and research settings to determine children's language abilities, although possible influences of race and maternal education on RBS–NA performance are unknown. The current study compared RBS–NA retells of 4 groups of children: African American (AA) children and European American (EA) children whose mothers had an education level of high school or less (≤ HS) and those whose mothers had an education level higher than high school (> HS).

Method

Statistical tests were used to examine 172 kindergartners' story retells using raw scores for all 4 RBS–NA measures: (a) Information, (b) Sentence Length, (c) Complexity, and (d) Independence.

Results

A 2 x 2 analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed main effects of maternal education and race for the Information score, with ≤ HS and AA children scoring lower. For measures not meeting ANOVA assumptions, 2 x 2 ANOVAs using ranked data indicated significant main effects of maternal education for Sentence Length, Complexity, and Independence measure, with ≤ HS children scoring lower within the AA group.

Conclusion

There are systematic effects of maternal education and race on children's RBS–NA performance, which is important for both researchers and clinicians to take into account when using this instrument.

Differential Associations Between Sensory Response Patterns and Language, Social, and Communication Measures in Children With Autism or Other Developmental Disabilities [Article]

2011-12-16T09:11:37-08:00

Purpose

To examine patterns of sensory responsiveness (i.e., hyperresponsiveness, hyporesponsiveness, and sensory seeking) as factors that may account for variability in social-communicative symptoms of autism and variability in language, social, and communication skill development in children with autism or other developmental disabilities (DDs).

Method

Children with autistic disorder (AD; n = 72, mean age = 52.3 months) and other DDs (n = 44, mean age = 48.1 months) participated in a protocol measuring sensory response patterns; social-communicative symptoms of autism; and language, social, and communication skills.

Results

Hyporesponsiveness was positively associated with social-communicative symptom severity, with no significant group difference in the association. Hyperresponsiveness was not significantly associated with social-communicative symptom severity. A group difference emerged for sensory seeking and social-communicative symptom severity, with a positive association for the AD group only. For the 2 groups of children combined, hyporesponsiveness was negatively associated with language skills and social adaptive skills. Sensory seeking also was negatively associated with language skills. These associations did not differ between the 2 groups.

Conclusions

Aberrant sensory processing may play an important role in the pathogenesis of autism and other DDs as well as in the rate of acquisition of language, social, and communication skills.

A MEG Investigation of Single-Word Auditory Comprehension in Aphasia [Article]

Zipse, L., Kearns, K., Nicholas, M., Marantz, A. — 2011-12-16T09:11:37-08:00

Purpose

To explore whether individuals with aphasia exhibit differences in the M350, an electrophysiological marker of lexical activation, compared with healthy controls.

Method

Seven people with aphasia, 9 age-matched controls, and 10 younger controls completed an auditory lexical decision task while cortical activity was recorded with magnetoencephalography. There were 2 stimulus conditions of interest: identity primed (i.e., a word preceded by itself) and semantic primed (i.e., a word preceded by a semantically related word). Latency and amplitude of the M350 response as well as reaction time were measured.

Results

Consistent with the age-matched control group, the group with aphasia showed both identity and semantic priming behaviorally. In contrast to the control groups, the group with aphasia did not show either semantic or identity priming of the M350 response. This group also demonstrated longer M350 latencies than either control group. Furthermore, within this group, M350 latency was positively correlated with a measure of semantic impairment.

Conclusions

These findings highlight the usefulness of temporally sensitive measures when studying aphasia and demonstrate that the latency of electrophysiological markers is of interest in this population. In particular, increased M350 latency appears to be indicative of a semantic processing impairment.

Concurrent and Construct Validity of Oral Language Measures With School-Age Children With Specific Language Impairment [Article]

Hoffman, L. M., Loeb, D. F., Brandel, J., Gillam, R. B. — 2011-12-16T09:11:37-08:00

Purpose

This study investigated the psychometric properties of 2 oral language measures that are commonly used for diagnostic purposes with school-age children who have language impairments.

Method

Two hundred sixteen children with specific language impairment were assessed with the Test of Language Development—Primary, Third Edition (TOLD–P:3; Newcomer & Hammill, 1997) and the Comprehensive Assessment of Spoken Language (CASL; Carrow-Woolfolk, 1999) within a 3-month period. The concurrent and construct validities of these 2 published tests were explored through correlation analysis and principle-component factor analysis.

Results

The TOLD–P:3 Spoken Language Quotient and CASL Core Composite scores were found to have an intertest correlation value of r = .596 within this sample, and a paired samples t test revealed a statistically significant difference between these scores. Principle-component factor analyses revealed a 2-factor structure solution for the TOLD–P:3, whereas data from the CASL supported a single-factor model.

Conclusions

Analyses of assessment measure performance data from a sample of school-age children with specific language impairment revealed concurrent validity values and construct validity patterns that differed from those found in the norming samples as cited in examiner manuals. Implications for practice patterns and future research are discussed.

Content and Form in the Narratives of Children With Specific Language Impairment [Article]

Colozzo, P., Gillam, R. B., Wood, M., Schnell, R. D., Johnston, J. R. — 2011-12-16T09:11:37-08:00

Purpose

This project investigated the relationship of content and form in the narratives of school-age children.

Method

Two samples of children with specific language impairment (SLI) and their age-matched peers (British Columbia sample, M age = 9;0 [years;months], N = 26; Texas/Kansas sample, M age = 7;6, N = 40) completed the Test of Narrative Language (TNL; Gillam & Pearson, 2004). The relative strength of content elaboration and grammatical accuracy were measured for each child using variables derived from the TNL scoring system (Study 1) and from analysis of the story texts (Study 2).

Results

Both studies indicated that, compared with age peers, the children with SLI were more likely to produce stories of uneven strength—either stories with poor content that were grammatically quite accurate or stories with elaborated content that were less grammatical.

Conclusions

These findings suggest that school-age children with SLI may struggle with the cumulative load of creating a story that is both elaborate and grammatical. They also show that the absence of errors is not necessarily a sign of strength. Finally, they underscore the value of comparing individual differences in multiple linguistic domains, including the elaboration of content, grammatical accuracy, and syntactic complexity.

Literacy Outcomes of Children With Early Childhood Speech Sound Disorders: Impact of Endophenotypes [Article]

2011-12-16T09:11:37-08:00

Purpose

To demonstrate that early childhood speech sound disorders (SSD) and later school-age reading, written expression, and spelling skills are influenced by shared endophenotypes that may be in part genetic.

Method

Children with SSD and their siblings were assessed at early childhood (ages 4–6 years) and followed at school age (7–12 years). The relationship of shared endophenotypes with early childhood SSD and school-age outcomes and the shared genetic influences on these outcomes were examined.

Results

Structural equation modeling demonstrated that oral motor skills, phonological awareness, phonological memory, vocabulary, and speeded naming have varying influences on reading decoding, spelling, spoken language, and written expression at school age. Genetic linkage studies demonstrated linkage for reading, spelling, and written expression measures to regions on chromosomes 1, 3, 6, and 15 that were previously linked to oral motor skills, articulation, phonological memory, and vocabulary at early childhood testing.

Conclusions

Endophenotypes predict school-age literacy outcomes over and above that predicted by clinical diagnoses of SSD or language impairment. Findings suggest that these shared endophenotypes and common genetic influences affect early childhood SSD and later school-age reading, spelling, spoken language, and written expression skills.

Preliminary Investigation of Visual Attention to Human Figures in Photographs: Potential Considerations for the Design of Aided AAC Visual Scene Displays [Article]

Wilkinson, K. M., Light, J. — 2011-12-16T09:11:37-08:00

Purpose

Many individuals with complex communication needs may benefit from visual aided augmentative and alternative communication systems. In visual scene displays (VSDs), language concepts are embedded into a photograph of a naturalistic event. Humans play a central role in communication development and might be important elements in VSDs. However, many VSDs omit human figures. In this study, the authors sought to describe the distribution of visual attention to humans in naturalistic scenes as compared with other elements.

Method

Nineteen college students observed 8 photographs in which a human figure appeared near 1 or more items that might be expected to compete for visual attention (such as a Christmas tree or a table loaded with food). Eye-tracking technology allowed precise recording of participants' gaze. The fixation duration over a 7-s viewing period and latency to view elements in the photograph were measured.

Results

Participants fixated on the human figures more rapidly and for longer than expected based on the size of these figures, regardless of the other elements in the scene.

Conclusions

Human figures attract attention in a photograph even when presented alongside other attractive distracters. Results suggest that humans may be a powerful means to attract visual attention to key elements in VSDs.

The Role of Developmental Levels in Examining the Effect of Subject Types on the Production of Auxiliary Is in Young English-Speaking Children [Research Note]

Guo, L.-Y., Owen Van Horne, A. J., Tomblin, J. B. — 2011-12-16T09:11:37-08:00

Purpose

Prior work (Guo, Owen, & Tomblin, 2010) has shown that at the group level, auxiliary is production by young English-speaking children was symmetrical across lexical noun and pronominal subjects. Individual data did not uniformly reflect these patterns. On the basis of the framework of the gradual morphosyntactic learning (GML) hypothesis, the authors tested whether the addition of a theoretically motivated developmental measure, tense productivity (TP), could assist in explaining these individual differences.

Method

Using archival data from 20 children between age 2;8 and 3;4 (years;months), the authors tested the ability of 3 developmental measures (TP; finite verb morphology composite, FVMC; mean length of utterance, MLU) to predict use of auxiliary is with different subject types.

Results

TP, but not MLU or FVMC, significantly improved model fit. Children with low TP scores produced auxiliary is more accurately with pronominal subjects than with lexical subjects. The facilitative effect of pronominal subjects on the production of auxiliary is, however, was not found in children with high TP scores.

Conclusion

The finding that the effect of subject types on the production accuracy of auxiliary is changed with children's TP is consistent with the GML hypothesis.

Auditory Spectral Integration in the Perception of Static Vowels [Article]

Fox, R. A., Jacewicz, E., Chang, C.-Y. — 2011-12-16T09:11:37-08:00

Purpose

To evaluate potential contributions of broadband spectral integration in the perception of static vowels. Specifically, can the auditory system infer formant frequency information from changes in the intensity weighting across harmonics when the formant itself is missing? Does this type of integration produce the same results in the lower (first formant [F1]) and higher (second formant [F2]) regions? Does the spacing between the spectral components affect a listener's ability to integrate the acoustic cues?

Method

Twenty young listeners with normal hearing identified synthesized vowel-like stimuli created for adjustments in the F1 region (//–/a/, /i/–//) and in the F2 region (//–/æ/). There were 2 types of stimuli: (a) 2-formant tokens and (b) tokens in which 1 formant was removed and 2 pairs of sine waves were inserted below and above the missing formant; the intensities of these harmonics were modified to cause variations in their spectral center of gravity (COG). The COG effects were tested over a wide range of frequencies.

Results

Obtained patterns were consistent with calculated changes to the spectral COG, in both the F1 and F2 regions. The spacing of the sine waves did not affect listeners' responses.

Conclusion

The auditory system may perform broadband integration as a type of auditory wideband spectral analysis.

Investigating Speech Perception in Children With Dyslexia: Is There Evidence of a Consistent Deficit in Individuals? [Article]

Messaoud-Galusi, S., Hazan, V., Rosen, S. — 2011-12-16T09:11:37-08:00

Purpose

The claim that speech perception abilities are impaired in dyslexia was investigated in a group of 62 children with dyslexia and 51 average readers matched in age.

Method

To test whether there was robust evidence of speech perception deficits in children with dyslexia, speech perception in noise and quiet was measured using 8 different tasks involving the identification and discrimination of a complex and highly natural synthetic "bee"–"pea" contrast (copy synthesized from natural models) and the perception of naturally produced words.

Results

Children with dyslexia, on average, performed more poorly than did average readers in the synthetic syllables identification task in quiet and in across-category discrimination (but not when tested using an adaptive procedure). They did not differ from average readers on 2 tasks of word recognition in noise or identification of synthetic syllables in noise. For all tasks, a majority of individual children with dyslexia performed within norms. Finally, speech perception generally did not correlate with pseudoword reading or phonological processing—the core skills related to dyslexia.

Conclusions

On the tasks and speech stimuli that the authors used, most children with dyslexia did not appear to show a consistent deficit in speech perception.

On the Use of the Distortion-Sensitivity Approach in Examining the Role of Linguistic Abilities in Speech Understanding in Noise [Research Note]

Goverts, S. T., Huysmans, E., Kramer, S. E., de Groot, A. M. B., Houtgast, T. — 2011-12-16T09:11:37-08:00

Purpose

Researchers have used the distortion-sensitivity approach in the psychoacoustical domain to investigate the role of auditory processing abilities in speech perception in noise (van Schijndel, Houtgast, & Festen, 2001; Goverts & Houtgast, 2010). In this study, the authors examined the potential applicability of the distortion-sensitivity approach for investigating the role of linguistic abilities in speech understanding in noise.

Method

The authors applied the distortion-sensitivity approach by measuring the processing of visually presented masked text in a condition with manipulated syntactic, lexical, and semantic cues and while using the Text Reception Threshold (George et al., 2007; Kramer, Zekveld, & Houtgast, 2009; Zekveld, George, Kramer, Goverts, & Houtgast, 2007) method. Two groups that differed in linguistic abilities were studied: 13 native and 10 non-native speakers of Dutch, all typically hearing university students.

Results

As expected, the non-native subjects showed substantially reduced performance. The results of the distortion-sensitivity approach yielded differentiated results on the use of specific linguistic cues in the 2 groups.

Conclusion

The results show the potential value of the distortion-sensitivity approach in studying the role of linguistic abilities in speech understanding in noise of individuals with hearing impairment.

Biotechnology in the Treatment of Sensorineural Hearing Loss: Foundations and Future of Hair Cell Regeneration [Tutorial]

Parker, M. A. — 2011-12-16T09:11:37-08:00

Purpose

To provide an overview of the methodologies involved in the field of hair cell regeneration. First, the author provides a tutorial on the biotechnological foundations of this field to assist the reader in the comprehension and interpretation of the research involved in hair cell regeneration. Next, the author presents a review of stem cell and gene therapy and provides a critical appraisal of their application to hair cell regeneration. The methodologies used in these approaches are highlighted.

Method

The author conducted a narrative review of the fields of cellular, molecular, and developmental biology, tissue engineering, and stem cell and gene therapy using the PubMed database.

Results

The use of biotechnological approaches to the treatment of hearing loss—approaches such as stem cell and gene therapy—has led to new methods of regenerating cochlear hair cells in mammals.

Conclusions

Incredible strides have been made in assembling important pieces of the puzzle that comprise hair cell regeneration. However, mammalian hair cell regeneration using stem cell and gene therapy are years—if not decades—away from being clinically feasible. If the goals of the biological approaches are met, these therapies may represent future treatments for hearing loss.

Erratum [correction]

Moss, S. E. — 2011-12-16T09:11:37-08:00

Changes to Articulatory Kinematics in Response to Loudness Cues in Individuals With Parkinson's Disease [Article]

Darling, M., Huber, J. E. — 2011-10-03T09:45:53-07:00

Purpose

Individuals with Parkinson's disease (PD) exhibit differences in displacement and velocity of the articulators as compared with older adults. The purpose of the current study was to examine effects of 3 loudness cues on articulatory movement patterns in individuals with PD.

Method

Nine individuals diagnosed with idiopathic PD and 9 age- and sex-matched healthy controls produced sentences in 4 conditions: (a) comfortable loudness, (b) targeting 10 dB above comfortable, (c) twice as loud as comfortable, and (d) in background noise. Lip and jaw kinematics and acoustic measurements were obtained.

Results

Both groups significantly increased sound pressure level (SPL) in the loud conditions as compared with the comfortable condition. For the loud conditions, both groups had the highest SPL in the background noise and the 10 dB conditions, and the lowest SPL in the twice as loud condition. Control participants produced the largest opening displacement in the background noise condition and the smallest opening displacement in the twice as loud condition. Conversely, individuals with PD produced the largest opening displacement in the twice as loud condition and the smallest opening displacement in the background noise condition.

Conclusions

Control participants and individuals with PD responded to cues to increase loudness in different ways. Changes in SPL may explain differences in kinematics for the control participants, but they do not explain such differences for individuals with PD.

Effects of Voice Therapy on Relative Fundamental Frequency During Voicing Offset and Onset in Patients With Vocal Hyperfunction [Article]

Stepp, C. E., Merchant, G. R., Heaton, J. T., Hillman, R. E. — 2011-10-03T09:45:53-07:00

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to determine whether the relative fundamental frequency (RFF) surrounding a voiceless consonant in patients with hyperfunctionally related voice disorders would normalize after a successful course of voice therapy.

Method

Pre- and posttherapy measurements of RFF were compared in 16 subjects undergoing voice therapy for voice disorders associated with vocal hyperfunction.

Results

A 2-way analysis of variance showed a statistically significant effect of both cycle of vibration near the consonant and therapy phase (pre- vs. post-), with p < .001. A post hoc paired Student's t test showed that posttherapy RFF measurements were significantly higher (more typical; p < .0001) than pretherapy measurements.

Conclusions

Prior to therapy, participants exhibited lowered RFF values, similar to those found previously (Stepp, Hillman, & Heaton, 2010). After successful completion of voice therapy, RFF values increased toward patterns seen previously in individuals with healthy typical voice. The goal of voice therapy in these patients was to reduce laryngeal muscle tension; therefore, the increase of RFF toward more typical values may be indicative of decreased baseline laryngeal muscle tension resulting from therapy. Results are discussed further in terms of necessary research to incorporate RFF as a clinical measure of vocal hyperfunction.

Relation of Structural and Vibratory Kinematics of the Vocal Folds to Two Acoustic Measures of Breathy Voice Based on Computational Modeling [Article]

Samlan, R. A., Story, B. H. — 2011-10-03T09:45:53-07:00

Purpose

To relate vocal fold structure and kinematics to 2 acoustic measures: cepstral peak prominence (CPP) and the amplitude of the first harmonic relative to the second (H1–H2).

Method

The authors used a computational, kinematic model of the medial surfaces of the vocal folds to specify features of vocal fold structure and vibration in a manner consistent with breathy voice. Four model parameters were altered: degree of vocal fold adduction, surface bulging, vibratory nodal point, and supraglottal constriction. CPP and H1–H2 were measured from simulated glottal area, glottal flow, and acoustic waveforms and were related to the underlying vocal fold kinematics.

Results

CPP decreased with increased separation of the vocal processes, whereas the nodal point location had little effect. H1–H2 increased as a function of separation of the vocal processes in the range of 1.0 mm to 1.5 mm and decreased with separation > 1.5 mm.

Conclusions

CPP is generally a function of vocal process separation. H1*–H2* (see paragraph 6 of article text for an explanation of the asterisks) will increase or decrease with vocal process separation on the basis of vocal fold shape, pivot point for the rotational mode, and supraglottal vocal tract shape, limiting its utility as an indicator of breathy voice. Future work will relate the perception of breathiness to vocal fold kinematics and acoustic measures.

Effects of Computer System and Vowel Loading on Measures of Nasalance [Research Note]

Awan, S. N., Omlor, K., Watts, C. R. — 2011-10-03T09:45:53-07:00

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to determine similarities and differences in nasalance scores observed with different computerized nasalance systems in the context of vowel-loaded sentences.

Methodology

Subjects were 46 Caucasian adults with no perceived hyper- or hyponasality. Nasalance scores were obtained using the Nasometer 6200 (Kay Elemetrics Corp.), the Nasometer II 6400 (Kay Elemetrics Corp.), and the NasalView (Tiger DRS, Inc.) for sentences loaded with mixed, high front, high back, low front, or low back vowels.

Results

Measures of nasalance obtained with the NasalView were significantly higher than those obtained with the Nasometer 6200, and the measures of nasalance obtained with the Nasometer 6200 were significantly higher than those obtained with the Nasometer II 6400. However, similar effects of vowel loading on measures of nasalance were observed, regardless of system. For all systems, the high front vowel sentence tended to result in higher measures of nasalance than did the high back, low front, and low back vowel sentences—the mixed vowel sentence tended to have a higher degree of nasalance than did any of the other sentences.

Conclusions

Although nasalance data computed using different systems are not readily comparable, all three systems that were evaluated produced similar effects of vowel loading on nasalance. Increased nasalance for high front versus low back vowels may be due to factors such as increased oral impedance, reduced radiated oral sound pressure, possible increases in airflow via the nasal cavity, and increased transpalatal nasalance.

Accuracy of the NDI Wave Speech Research System [Research Note]

Berry, J. J. — 2011-10-03T09:45:53-07:00

Purpose

This work provides a quantitative assessment of the positional tracking accuracy of the NDI Wave Speech Research System.

Method

Three experiments were completed: (a) static rigid-body tracking across different locations in the electromagnetic field volume, (b) dynamic rigid-body tracking across different locations within the electromagnetic field volume, and (c) human jaw-movement tracking during speech. Rigid-body experiments were completed for 4 different instrumentation settings, permuting 2 electromagnetic field volume sizes with and without automated reference sensor processing.

Results

Within the anthropometrically pertinent "near field" (< 200 mm) of the NDI Wave field generator, at the 300-mm³ volume setting, 88% of dynamic positional errors were < 0.5 mm and 98% were < 1.0 mm. Extreme tracking errors (> 2 mm) occurred within the near field for < 1% of position samples. For human jaw-movement tracking, 95% of position samples had < 0.5 mm errors for 9 out of 10 subjects.

Conclusions

Static tracking accuracy is modestly superior to dynamic tracking accuracy. Dynamic tracking accuracy is best for the 300-mm³ field setting in the 200-mm near field. The use of automated head correction has no deleterious effect on tracking. Tracking errors for jaw movements during speech are typically < 0.5 mm.

Classifications of Vocalic Segments From Articulatory Kinematics: Healthy Controls and Speakers With Dysarthria [Research Note]

Yunusova, Y., Weismer, G. G., Lindstrom, M. J. — 2011-10-03T09:45:53-07:00

Purpose

In this study, the authors classified vocalic segments produced by control speakers (C) and speakers with dysarthria due to amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) or Parkinson's disease (PD); classification was based on movement measures. The researchers asked the following questions: (a) Can vowels be classified on the basis of selected measures of articulatory motions? and (b) Can classification models that are constructed from control productions classify vowels produced by speakers with dysarthria that is related to ALS and PD?

Method

Nineteen C, 7 PD, and 8 ALS speakers participated in this study. The severity of dysarthria varied across individuals and between the 2 disorder groups. The stimuli were 6 vowels produced in 10 words embedded into sentences read at a comfortable reading rate. Movement data were collected using the x-ray microbeam. Movement measures included distances traveled, durations, and average speeds of vowel-related movement strokes. Vowels and words were classified by linear discriminant analysis with measures of articulatory motion as input variables.

Results

The study showed that vocalic segments could be classified using articulatory movement characteristics with up to 80% accuracy. The classification accuracy of the movement-based models depended largely on the number of articulators involved and, to a lesser extent, on the movement measure (e.g., distance, duration, speed). Classification of PD vowels was similar to that of the C group, suggesting a simple scaling of gestures as an explanation of the movement deficit in this disease. Classification performance for ALS vowels appeared to be different from that of C and PD productions.

Conclusion

Classification of vowels was possible on the basis of their articulatory motions. ALS vowels appeared categorically different from those of C and PD speakers.

Contributions of Morphological Awareness Skills to Word-Level Reading and Spelling in First-Grade Children With and Without Speech Sound Disorder [Article]

Apel, K., Lawrence, J. — 2011-10-03T09:45:53-07:00

Purpose

In this study, the authors compared the morphological awareness abilities of children with speech sound disorder (SSD) and children with typical speech skills and examined how morphological awareness ability predicted word-level reading and spelling performance above other known contributors to literacy development.

Method

Eighty-eight first-grade students—44 students with SSD and no known history of language deficiencies, and 44 students with typical speech and language skills—completed an assessment battery designed to measure speech sound production, morphological awareness, phonemic awareness, letter-name knowledge, receptive vocabulary, word-level reading, and spelling abilities.

Results

The children with SSD scored significantly lower than did their counterparts on the morphological awareness measures as well as on phonemic awareness, word-level reading, and spelling tasks. Regression analyses suggested that morphological awareness predicted significant unique variance on the spelling measure for both groups and on the word-level reading measure for the children with typical skills.

Conclusion

These results suggest that children with SSD may present with a general linguistic awareness insufficiency, which puts them at risk for difficulties with literacy and literacy-related tasks.

A Nationally Representative Study of the Association Between Communication Impairment at 4-5 Years and Children's Life Activities at 7-9 Years [Article]

McCormack, J., Harrison, L. J., McLeod, S., McAllister, L. — 2011-10-03T09:45:53-07:00

Purpose

To examine the longitudinal association between communication impairment (primary or secondary diagnosis) and children's Activities and Participation (International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health—Children and Youth [ICF–CY]; World Health Organization [WHO], 2007).

Method

Participants were 4,329 children in the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children (LSAC; Australian Institute of Family Studies [AIFS], 2009): 1,041 (24.0%) of these children were identified with communication impairment at 4–5 years of age, and 3,288 (76.0%) of these children were not identified with a communication impairment. At age 7–9 years, Activities and Participation (WHO, 2007) outcomes across 5 ICF–CY domains were provided by (a) teachers (Academic Rating Scales [National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), 2002], Approach to Learning Scale [Gresham & Elliott, 1990], School Progress Scale (AIFS, 2009), Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire [SDQ; Goodman, 1997], and Student–Teacher Relationship Scale [Pianta, 2001]); (b) parents (School-Age Inventory of Temperament [McClowry, 1995] and SDQ); (c) children (Marsh Self-Description Questionnaire–III [Marsh, 1992], School Liking [Ladd & Price, 1987], and Bullying [Kochenderfer & Ladd, 1997]); and (d) child assessment (Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test—III: Adapted; Rothman, 2003).

Results

Children identified with communication impairment at age 4–5 years performed significantly poorer at age 7–9 years on all outcomes. Parents and teachers reported slower progression in reading, writing, and overall school achievement than peers. Children reported more bullying, poorer peer relationships, and less enjoyment of school than did their peers. Analyses of covariance tests confirmed significant associations between communication impairment and outcomes, over and above the effects of sex, age, Indigenous status, and socioeconomic status.

Conclusion

Consideration of the breadth and longevity of Activities and Participation outcomes reveals the potential extent and severity of communication impairment and directs future research and practice.

Effects of Perceptual and Contextual Enrichment on Visual Confrontation Naming in Adult Aging [Article]

Rogalski, Y., Peelle, J. E., Reilly, J. — 2011-10-03T09:45:53-07:00

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of enriching line drawings with color/texture and environmental context as a facilitator of naming speed and accuracy in older adults.

Method

Twenty young and 23 older adults named high-frequency picture stimuli from the Boston Naming Test (Kaplan, Goodglass, & Weintraub, 2001) under three conditions: (a) black-and-white items, (b) colorized-texturized items, and (c) scene-primed colored items (e.g., "hammock" preceded 1,000 ms by a backyard scene).

Results

With respect to speeded naming latencies, mixed-model analyses of variance revealed that young adults did not benefit from colorization-texturization but did show scene-priming effects. In contrast, older adults failed to show facilitation effects from either colorized-texturized or scene-primed items. Moreover, older adults were consistently slower to initiate naming than were their younger counterparts across all conditions.

Conclusions

Perceptual and contextual enrichment of sparse line drawings does not appear to facilitate visual confrontation naming in older adults, whereas younger adults do tend to show benefits of scene priming. We interpret these findings as generally supportive of a processing speed account of age-related object picture-naming difficulty.

Taxometric Analyses of Specific Language Impairment in 6-Year-Old Children [Article]

Dollaghan, C. A. — 2011-10-03T09:45:53-07:00

Purpose

To determine whether language scores at age 6 years suggest that specific language impairments (SLIs) distribute in a categorical or in a dimensional fashion.

Method

A taxometric analysis of language scores from 601 six-year-old children who were free of neonatal risk factors was performed. From among 4 candidate indicators of SLI, 2 were eligible for the mean above minus below a cut (MAMBAC) procedure (Meehl & Yonce, 1994): number of different words (NDW) produced in a language sample and average percentage phonemes repeated correctly in 3- and 4-syllable nonwords (3–4 PPC). Graphs of these MAMBAC variables were inspected to determine whether they patterned in a manner suggesting the presence of a discrete category, having either a central peak or a steep curve peaking near the final interval.

Results

MAMBAC curves for NDW and 3–4 PPC did not suggest the presence of a taxon, and results did not vary during consistency checks in which MAMBAC parameters and cutoff values for language deficits were manipulated.

Conclusions

Results suggest that for these measures, children with specific language deficits are those falling at the lower end of a continuous distribution of language skills rather than a qualitatively distinct group.

Sustained Attention in Children With Primary Language Impairment: A Meta-Analysis [Review]

Ebert, K. D., Kohnert, K. — 2011-10-03T09:45:53-07:00

Purpose

This study provides a meta-analysis of the difference between children with primary or specific language impairment (LI) and their typically developing peers on tasks of sustained attention. The meta-analysis seeks to determine whether children with LI demonstrate subclinical deficits in sustained attention and, if so, under what conditions.

Method

Articles that reported empirical data from the performance of children with LI, in comparison to typically developing peers, on a task assessing sustained attention were considered for inclusion. Twenty-eight effect sizes were included in the meta-analysis. Two moderator analyses addressed the effects of stimulus modality and attention-deficit/hypereactivity disorder exclusion. In addition, reaction time outcomes and the effects of task variables were summarized qualitatively.

Results

The meta-analysis supports the existence of sustained attention deficits in children with LI in both auditory and visual modalities, as demonstrated by reduced accuracy compared with typically developing peers. Larger effect sizes are found in tasks that use auditory–linguistic stimuli than in studies that use visual stimuli.

Conclusions

Future research should consider the role that sustained attention weaknesses play in LI as well as the implications for clinical and research assessment tasks. Methodological recommendations are summarized.

Predictors of Rehabilitation Intervention Decisions in Adults With Acquired Hearing Impairment [Article]

Laplante-Levesque, A., Hickson, L., Worrall, L. — 2011-10-03T09:45:53-07:00

Purpose

This study investigated the predictors of rehabilitation intervention decisions in middle-age and older adults with acquired hearing impairment seeking help for the first time.

Method

Using shared decision making, 139 participants were offered intervention options: hearing aids, communication programs (group or individual), and no intervention. Multivariate analysis (logistic regression) provided odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals for intervention decision predictors when all other variables were held constant.

Results

Seven intervention decision predictors were identified: (a) application for subsidized hearing services (participants more likely to choose hearing aids and less likely to choose communication programs), (b) hearing impairment (hearing aids more likely and no intervention less likely), (c) communication self-efficacy (hearing aids less likely), (d) powerful others as locus of control (hearing aids less likely), (e) hearing disability perceived by others and self (hearing aids more likely), (f) perceived communication program effectiveness (communication programs more likely), and (g) perceived suitability of individual communication program (hearing aids less likely and communication programs more likely).

Conclusion

Findings suggest the need for clinicians to explicitly elicit the predictors identified by this study when involving adults with acquired hearing impairment in intervention decisions.

Bimodal Hearing and Speech Perception With a Competing Talker [Article]

Pyschny, V., Landwehr, M., Hahn, M., Walger, M., von Wedel, H., Meister, H. — 2011-10-03T09:45:53-07:00

Purpose

The objective of the study was to investigate the influence of bimodal stimulation upon hearing ability for speech recognition in the presence of a single competing talker.

Method

Speech recognition was measured in 3 listening conditions: hearing aid (HA) alone, cochlear implant (CI) alone, and both devices together (CI + HA). To examine the use of low-frequency cues, the competing masker voice was manipulated with respect to fundamental frequency (F0) and formant frequencies. Twelve implanted adults were included in the study.

Results

Group results revealed only a relatively small benefit of CI + HA compared with the CI alone. A detailed analysis of errors, which was assumed to be an indicator for the release from masking, revealed that this benefit was not attributed to improved target–masker segregation. The variable determined to be responsible for segregating target and masker talkers was a large difference in F0 of the voices. This held true for all CI alone, HA alone, and CI + HA listening conditions.

Conclusions

Bimodal hearing improved overall speech recognition of both the target and the masker. No evidence for better target–masker separation with bimodal fitting could be found.

Visual Cues and Listening Effort: Individual Variability [Article]

Picou, E. M., Ricketts, T. A., Hornsby, B. W. Y. — 2011-10-03T09:45:53-07:00

Purpose

To investigate the effect of visual cues on listening effort as well as whether predictive variables such as working memory capacity (WMC) and lipreading ability affect the magnitude of listening effort.

Method

Twenty participants with normal hearing were tested using a paired-associates recall task in 2 conditions (quiet and noise) and 2 presentation modalities (audio only [AO] and auditory–visual [AV]). Signal-to-noise ratios were adjusted to provide matched speech recognition across audio-only and AV noise conditions. Also measured were subjective perceptions of listening effort and 2 predictive variables: (a) lipreading ability and (b) WMC.

Results

Objective and subjective results indicated that listening effort increased in the presence of noise, but on average the addition of visual cues did not significantly affect the magnitude of listening effort. Although there was substantial individual variability, on average participants who were better lipreaders or had larger WMCs demonstrated reduced listening effort in noise in AV conditions.

Conclusions

Overall, the results support the hypothesis that integrating auditory and visual cues requires cognitive resources in some participants. The data indicate that low lipreading ability or low WMC is associated with relatively effortful integration of auditory and visual information in noise.

Enhancing Speech Discrimination Through Stimulus Repetition [Article]

Holt, R. F. — 2011-10-03T09:45:53-07:00

Purpose

To evaluate the effects of sequential and alternating repetition on speech-sound discrimination.

Method

Typically hearing adults' discrimination of 3 pairs of speech-sound contrasts was assessed at 3 signal-to-noise ratios using the change/no-change procedure. On change trials, the standard and comparison stimuli differ; on no-change trials, they are identical. Listeners were presented with 5 repetition conditions: 2 and 4 sequential repetitions of the standard followed by sequential repetitions of the comparison; 2 and 4 alternating presentations of the standard and comparison; and 1 repetition of the standard and comparison.

Results

Both sequential and alternating repetition improved discrimination of the fricative and liquid contrasts, but neither was clearly superior to the other across the conditions.

Conclusions

The results support previous findings that increasing the number of fricative and liquid stimulus presentations improves discriminability and extends the findings to natural speech stimuli. Further, the effect of repetition is robust: Both sequential and alternating repetitions improve speech-sound discrimination, and few differences emerge between the two types of stimulus repetitions. The results have implications for evaluating the strength of the internal representation of speech stimuli in clinical populations believed to have a core deficit in phonological encoding, such as children with hearing loss.

Age-Related Benefits of Digital Noise Reduction for Short-Term Word Learning in Children With Hearing Loss [Article]

Pittman, A. — 2011-10-03T09:45:53-07:00

Purpose

To determine the rate of word learning for children with hearing loss (HL) in quiet and in noise compared to normal-hearing (NH) peers. The effects of digital noise reduction (DNR) were examined for children with HL.

Method

Forty-one children with NH and 26 children with HL were grouped by age (8–9 years and 11–12 years). The children learned novel words associated with novel objects through a process of trial and error. Functions relating performance across trials were calculated for each child in each listening condition and were compared.

Results

Significant effects were observed for age (older > younger) in the children with NH and listening condition (quiet > noise) in the children with HL. Significant effects of hearing status were also observed across groups (NH > HL), indicating that the children with HL required more trials to learn the new words. However, word learning improved significantly in noise with the use of DNR for the older but not for the younger children with HL. Hearing aid history and signal-to-noise ratio did not contribute to performance.

Conclusion

Word learning was significantly reduced in younger children, in noise, and in the presence of hearing loss. Age-related benefits of DNR were apparent for children over 10 years of age.

The MOC Reflex During Active Listening to Speech [Article]

Garinis, A. C., Glattke, T., Cone, B. K. — 2011-10-03T09:45:53-07:00

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that active listening to speech would increase medial olivocochlear (MOC) efferent activity for the right vs. the left ear.

Method

Click-evoked otoacoustic emissions (CEOAEs) were evoked by 60-dB p.e. SPL clicks in 13 normally hearing adults in 4 test conditions for each ear: (a) in quiet; (b) with 60-dB SPL contralateral broadband noise; (c) with words embedded (at –3-dB signal-to-noise ratio [SNR]) in 60-dB SPL contralateral noise during which listeners directed attention to the words; and (d) for the same SNR as in the 3rd condition, with words played backwards.

Results

There was greater suppression during active listening compared with passive listening that was apparent in the latency range of 6- to 18-ms poststimulus onset. Ear differences in CEOAE amplitude were observed in all conditions, with right-ear amplitudes larger than those for the left. The absolute difference between CEOAE amplitude in quiet and with contralateral noise, a metric of suppression, was equivalent for right and left ears. When the amplitude differences were normalized, suppression was greater for noise presented to the right and the effect measured for a probe in the left ear.

Conclusion

The findings support the theory that cortical mechanisms involved in listening to speech affect cochlear function through the MOC efferent system.

Evaluation of a Telephone Speech-Enhancement Algorithm Among Older Adults With Hearing Loss [Research Note]

Roup, C. M., Poling, G. L., Harhager, K., Krishnamurthy, A., Feth, L. L. — 2011-10-03T09:45:54-07:00

Purpose

In this study, the authors evaluated a processing algorithm aimed at improving speech recognition via the telephone among older adults with sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL).

Method

Thirty older adults with SNHL participated. Speech recognition was measured in quiet using the Modified Rhyme Test (MRT; Kreul et al., 1968) and the Speech Perception in Noise (SPIN; Bilger et al., 1984) sentences, and in noise using the Quick Speech in Noise (QSIN; Killion et al., 2004) test. Each test was presented via the telephone with and without processing.

Results

Significant improvements in recognition performance due to processing were observed for the SPIN and QSIN. The improvement on the QSIN was significantly greater than on the MRT and SPIN, likely because the MRT and SPIN sentences were presented in quiet, whereas the QSIN was presented in noise. Significant improvements in recognition performance were observed for both an offline version and a real-time version of the algorithm relative to the unprocessed condition, although no difference was noted between the 2 versions.

Conclusions

Results indicate that preprocessing the acoustic signal is a viable method of improving speech recognition via the telephone. The algorithm has the potential to benefit older adults with SNHL who struggle to communicate via the telephone with or without hearing aids.

Developmental Sexual Dimorphism of the Oral and Pharyngeal Portions of the Vocal Tract: An Imaging Study [Article]

2011-08-01T09:01:31-07:00

Purpose

The anatomic origin for prepubertal vowel acoustic differences between male and female subjects remains unknown. The purpose of this study is to examine developmental sex differences in vocal tract (VT) length and its oral and pharyngeal portions.

Method

Nine VT variables were measured from 605 imaging studies (magnetic resonance imaging and computed tomography) of subjects between birth and age 19 years. Given sex differences in growth rate (Vorperian et al., 2009), assessment of sex differences was done through use of a localized comparison window of 60 months. Analysis entailed applying this comparison window first to 4 discrete age cohorts, followed by a progressive assessment in which this comparison window was moved in 1-month increments from birth across all ages.

Results

Findings document significant postpubertal sex differences in both the oral and pharyngeal portions of the VT. They also document periods of significant prepubertal sex differences in the oral region first, followed by segments in the pharyngeal region.

Conclusions

Assessment of developmental sex differences using localized age ranges is effective in unveiling sex differences that growth rate differences may conceal. Findings on the presence of prepubertal sex differences in the oral region of the VT may clarify, in part, the anatomic basis of documented prepubertal acoustic differences.

Changes in Acoustic Characteristics of the Voice Across the Life Span: Measures From Individuals 4-93 Years of Age [Article]

Stathopoulos, E. T., Huber, J. E., Sussman, J. E. — 2011-08-01T09:01:32-07:00

Purpose

The purpose of the present investigation was to examine acoustic voice changes across the life span. Previous voice production investigations used small numbers of participants, had limited age ranges, and produced contradictory results.

Method

Voice recordings were made from 192 male and female participants 4–93 years of age. Acoustic measures of fundamental frequency (F0), sound pressure level (SPL), and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) were made. Coefficients of variation for F0, SPL, and SNR served as measures of variability. Variables were analyzed separately with stepwise regressions, using age and sex as predictors.

Results

Differences in F0 and SNR across the life span were sex specific. Male and female participants demonstrated significant nonlinear trends for F0, but the trends were stronger for male participants. Female participants demonstrated a similar nonlinear trend for SNR, whereas male participants demonstrated linear increases in SNR with age. Variability of F0, SPL, and SNR followed nonlinear trends, higher at younger and older ages.

Conclusions

Changes in voice production occur throughout the life span, often in a nonlinear way and differently for male and female individuals. Higher variability of acoustic measures of voice in both young and old speakers reflects changes in anatomic structure, physiologic mechanisms, and motor control.

Quantitative Study of Vibrational Symmetry of Injured Vocal Folds Via Digital Kymography in Excised Canine Larynges [Article]

Krausert, C. R., Ying, D., Zhang, Y., Jiang, J. J. — 2011-08-01T09:01:32-07:00

Purpose

Digital kymography and vocal fold curve fitting are blended with detailed symmetry analysis of kymograms to provide a comprehensive characterization of the vibratory properties of injured vocal folds.

Method

Vocal fold vibration of 12 excised canine larynges was recorded under uninjured, unilaterally injured, and bilaterally injured conditions. Kymograms were created at 25%, 50%, and 75% of the vocal fold length, and vibratory parameters were compared quantitatively among conditions and were studied with respect to right–left and anterior–posterior symmetries.

Results

Anterior–posterior amplitude asymmetry was found in the bilateral condition. The unilateral condition showed significant right–left amplitude asymmetry, and it showed the lowest right–left phase symmetry among the conditions. In condition comparisons, vertical phase difference did not show significant differences among conditions, whereas amplitudes were significantly different among conditions at all line scan positions and most vocal fold lips. Significant differences in frequency were found among the conditions at all 4 vocal fold lips, with the bilateral condition exhibiting the greatest frequency.

Conclusion

Digital kymography and curve fitting provide detailed information about the vibratory behavior of injured vocal folds. Awareness of vibratory properties associated with vocal fold injury may aid in diagnosis, and the quantitative abilities of digital kymography may allow for objective treatment selection.

Syllable-Related Breathing in Infants in the Second Year of Life [Article]

Parham, D. F., Buder, E. H., Oller, D. K., Boliek, C. A. — 2011-08-01T09:01:32-07:00

Purpose

This study explored whether breathing behaviors of infants within the 2nd year of life differ between tidal breathing and breathing supporting single unarticulated syllables and canonical/articulated syllables.

Method

Vocalizations and breathing kinematics of 9 infants between 53 and 90 weeks of age were recorded. A strict selection protocol was used to identify analyzable breath cycles. Syllables were categorized on the basis of consensus coding. Inspiratory and expiratory durations, excursions, and slopes were calculated for the 3 breath cycle types and were normalized using mean tidal breath measures.

Results

Tidal breathing cycles were significantly different from syllable-related cycles on all breathing measures. There were no significant differences between unarticulated syllable cycles and canonical syllable cycles, even after controlling for utterance duration and sound pressure level.

Conclusions

Infants in the 2nd year of life exhibit clear differences between tidal breathing and speech-related breathing, but categorically distinct breath support for syllable types with varying articulatory demands was not evident in the present findings. Speech development introduces increasingly complex utterances, so older infants may produce detectable articulation-related adaptations of breathing kinematics. For younger infants, breath support may vary systematically among utterance types, due more to phonatory variations than to articulatory demands.

Prosodic Adaptations to Pitch Perturbation in Running Speech [Article]

Patel, R., Niziolek, C., Reilly, K., Guenther, F. H. — 2011-08-01T09:01:32-07:00

Purpose

A feedback perturbation paradigm was used to investigate whether prosodic cues are controlled independently or in an integrated fashion during sentence production.

Method

Twenty-one healthy speakers of American English were asked to produce sentences with emphatic stress while receiving real-time auditory feedback of their productions. The fundamental frequency (F0) of the stressed word in each 4-word sentence was selectively shifted in a sensorimotor adaptation protocol. Speakers experienced either an upward or a downward shift of the stressed word, which gradually altered the perceived stress of the sentence.

Results

Participants in the Up and Down groups adapted to F0 shifts by altering the contrast between stressed and unstressed words differentially, such that the two groups deviated from each other in the perturbation phase. Furthermore, selective F0 perturbation in sentences with emphatic stress resulted in compensatory changes in both F0 and intensity.

Conclusions

Present findings suggest that F0 and intensity are controlled in an integrated fashion to maintain the contrast between stressed and unstressed words. When a cue is impaired through perturbation, speakers not only oppose the perturbation but enhance other prosodic cues to achieve emphatic stress.

Localization of Label-Retaining Cells in Murine Vocal Fold Epithelium [Article]

Leydon, C., Bartlett, R. S., Roenneburg, D. A., Thibeault, S. L. — 2011-08-01T09:01:32-07:00

Purpose

Epithelial homeostasis is critical for vocal fold health, yet little is known about the cells that support epithelial self-renewal. As a known characteristic of stem cells is that they are slow-cycling in vivo, the purpose of this prospective controlled study was to identify and quantify slow-cycling cells or putative stem cells in murine vocal fold epithelium.

Method

Twelve mice were administered daily intraperitoneal injections of a nucleotide dye, bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU), over 7 consecutive days. Under this pulse-chase paradigm, slow-cycling cells retain the dye (label-retaining cells; LRCs) while more rapidly cycling cells lose dye to dilution during multiple cell divisions. The percentage of label-retaining cells (%LRCs) was calculated following a chase period of 2, 4, and 8 weeks postinjections.

Results

The %LRCs decreased significantly from 9.4% at 2 weeks to 3.1% at 8 weeks following injections (p < .05). No statistically significant differences in the quantity of BrdU-positive cells were measured between the anterior, mid-membranous, or cartilaginous regions of the vocal fold (p > .05).

Conclusion

These findings are consistent with the presence and first report of a small population of putative stem cells along the length of murine vocal fold epithelium.

A Critical Evaluation of Gestural Stiffness Estimations in Speech Production Based on a Linear Second-Order Model [Research Note]

Fuchs, S., Perrier, P., Hartinger, M. — 2011-08-01T09:01:32-07:00

Purpose

Linear second-order models have often been used to investigate properties of speech production. However, these models are inaccurate approximations of the speech apparatus. This study aims at assessing how reliably stiffness can be estimated from kinematics with these models.

Method

Articulatory movements were collected for 9 speakers of German during the production of reiterant CVCV words at varying speech rates. Velocity peaks, movement amplitudes, and gesture durations were measured. In the context of an undamped model, 2 stiffness estimations were compared that should theoretically yield the same result. In the context of a damped model, gestural stiffness and damping were calculated for each gesture.

Results

Numerous cases were found in which stiffness estimations based on the undamped model contradicted each other. Less than 80% of the data were found to be compatible with the properties of the damped model. Stiffness tends to decrease with gestural duration. However, it is associated with a large, unrealistic damping dispersion, making stiffness estimations from kinematic data to a large extent unreliable.

Conclusion

Any conclusions about speech control based on stiffness estimations using linear second-order models should therefore be considered with caution.

Bilingual Language Assessment: A Meta-Analysis of Diagnostic Accuracy [Article]

Dollaghan, C. A., Horner, E. A. — 2011-08-01T09:01:32-07:00

Purpose

To describe quality indicators for appraising studies of diagnostic accuracy and to report a meta-analysis of measures for diagnosing language impairment (LI) in bilingual Spanish–English U.S. children.

Method

The authors searched electronically and by hand to locate peer-reviewed English-language publications meeting inclusion criteria; the authors rated quality features, calculated accuracy metrics and confidence intervals, and generated forest plots.

Results

Of 771 citations (86 unique) located initially, accuracy metrics could be calculated for 17 index measures studied in a total of 100 children with LI and 109 with typical language. Most studies lacked clear descriptions of reference standards, procedures, and controls for subjective bias, making it difficult to rate specific quality features with confidence. Positive likelihood ratios (LR+) for most measures were at least diagnostically suggestive (pooled LR+ = 4.12; 95% CI [2.94, 5.78]). Negative likelihood ratios (LR–) were also generally suggestive, but heterogeneity precluded averaging. For every measure, confidence intervals for LR+ and LR– included diagnostically uninformative values.

Conclusions

The available evidence does not support strong claims concerning the diagnostic accuracy of these measures, but a number appear promising. Several steps are suggested for strengthening future investigations of diagnostic accuracy.

Development of a Short Form of the Boston Naming Test for Individuals With Aphasia [Article]

2011-08-01T09:01:32-07:00

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to develop a short form of the Boston Naming Test (BNT; Kaplan, Goodglass, & Weintraub, 2001) for individuals with aphasia and compare it with 2 existing short forms originally analyzed with responses from people with dementia and neurologically healthy adults.

Method

Development of the new BNT–Aphasia Short Form and analysis of the other 2 forms were completed with archival data from 100 individuals with aphasia. The authors developed the BNT–Aphasia Short Form using items from the original 60-item instrument based on item response theory. Rasch analysis was computed on the short forms developed by Graves, Bezeau, Fogarty, and Blair (2004) and by Mack, Freed, Williams, and Henderson (1992).

Results

Analysis of the Graves et al. (2004) short form resulted in the smallest range of item difficulty and the largest floor effect compared with the Mack et al. (1992) short form and the BNT–Aphasia short form. The BNT–Aphasia Short Form showed an increase in information in the middle of the scale relative to both the Graves et al. and the Mack et al. forms.

Conclusions

The new short form demonstrates good psychometric properties when used with individuals with aphasia. However, the Mack et al. form proved to be as psychometrically sound as the BNT–Aphasia Short Form and is also appropriate for individuals with aphasia.

Treatment of Category Generation and Retrieval in Aphasia: Effect of Typicality of Category Items [Article]

Kiran, S., Sandberg, C., Sebastian, R. — 2011-08-01T09:01:32-07:00

Purpose

Kiran and colleagues (Kiran, 2007, 2008; Kiran & Johnson, 2008; Kiran & Thompson, 2003) previously suggested that training atypical examples within a semantic category is a more efficient treatment approach to facilitating generalization within the category than training typical examples. In the present study, the authors extended previous work examining the notion of semantic complexity within goal-derived (ad hoc) categories in individuals with aphasia.

Methods

Six individuals with fluent aphasia (age range = 39–84 years) and varying degrees of naming deficits and semantic impairments were involved. Thirty typical and atypical items, each from 2 categories, were selected after an extensive stimulus norming task. Generative naming for the 2 categories was tested during baseline and treatment.

Results

As predicted, training atypical examples in the category resulted in generalization to untrained typical examples in 5 of 5 patient–treatment conditions. In contrast, training typical examples (which was examined in 3 conditions) produced mixed results. One patient showed generalization to untrained atypical examples, whereas 2 patients did not show generalization to untrained atypical examples.

Conclusion

Results of the present study supplement existing data on the effect of a semantically based treatment for lexical retrieval by manipulating the typicality of category examples.

Supervised Home Training of Dialogue Skills in Chronic Aphasia: A Randomized Parallel Group Study [Article]

Nobis-Bosch, R., Springer, L., Radermacher, I., Huber, W. — 2011-08-01T09:01:32-07:00

Purpose

The aim of this study was to prove the efficacy of supervised self-training for individuals with aphasia. Linguistic and communicative performance in structured dialogues represented the main study parameters.

Method

In a cross-over design for randomized matched pairs, 18 individuals with chronic aphasia were examined during 12 weeks of supervised home training. Intensive language training, assisted by an electronic learning device (B.A.Bar), was compared with nonlinguistic training. Language performance, communicative abilities, and cognitive abilities were controlled before and after each intervention and at follow-up. The language training was designed to facilitate dialogue skills as required in everyday life.

Results

Robust and specific improvements in the participants' linguistic and communicative abilities were obtained using B.A.Bar dialogue training but not with nonlinguistic training. The transfer to general linguistic and communicative performance remained limited when the whole group was considered. For 30%–50% of the participants, individual analysis revealed significant improvements in spontaneous language and general communicative skills. Furthermore, individual participants demonstrated significant improvements regarding standardized aphasia assessment and proxy rating of communicative effectiveness.

Conclusion

Supervised home training works. This study has proven that it is an effective tool for bolstering linguistic and communicative skills of individuals with aphasia.

Evidence for Preserved Novel Word Learning in Down Syndrome Suggests Multiple Routes to Vocabulary Acquisition [Article]

Mosse, E. K., Jarrold, C. — 2011-08-01T09:01:32-07:00

Purpose

Three studies investigated novel word learning, some requiring phonological production, each involving between 11 and 17 individuals with Down syndrome, and between 15 and 24 typically developing individuals matched for receptive vocabulary. The effect of stimuli wordlikeness and incidental procedure-based memory demands were examined to see whether these may account for an apparent impairment in word learning in Down syndrome demonstrated in earlier research.

Method

Paired associate word and nonword learning tasks were presented, requiring participants to learn the names of novel characters. The nonword stimuli varied in the degree of wordlikeness in 2 studies. A third study investigated extraneous task demand.

Results

Across 3 studies, there was no suggestion of a word learning deficit associated with Down syndrome (²_p for the main effect of group of .03, .11, and .03, respectively), despite the level of phonological representation required. There was evidence that novel word learning by participants with Down syndrome exceeded that which their verbal short-term memory capacity would predict.

Conclusions

Vocabulary acquisition in Down syndrome may not rely on verbal short-term memory to the same extent as in typically developing children, lending support to the suggestion that new word learning may be underpinned by an additional memory process.

How Well Do Children Who Are Internationally Adopted Acquire Language? A Meta-Analysis [Article]

Scott, K. A., Roberts, J. A., Glennen, S. — 2011-08-01T09:01:32-07:00

Purpose

In this article, the authors present the results of a systematic and meta-analytic examination of the language outcomes of children who are internationally adopted. The study examined the questions of whether the early life experiences of children who are internationally adopted and the language switch that occurs after adoption hinder the acquisition of language skills.

Method

The authors selected available studies on the language acquisition of internationally adopted children using search strategies from both a comprehensive set of databases and manual searching of selected studies. Study eligibility criteria included (a) participants clearly identified as being internationally adopted, (b) measurable language outcomes were reported, (c) a control group or normative measure was used in the design of the study, and (d) effect size was reported, or data were provided to calculate effect size.

Results

The meta-analysis found that as a group, the children expressed great variability in their language skills. Overall, they were more likely to have poorer language outcomes than comparison children, but several moderating variables were found.

Conclusions

The results of the meta-analysis have direct clinical application regarding the assessment and treatment of language skills of internationally adopted children. The study also has implications for future studies of the language development of internationally adopted children.

Initial Mean Length of Utterance Predicts the Relative Efficacy of Two Grammatical Treatments in Preschoolers With Specific Language Impairment [Article]

Yoder, P. J., Molfese, D., Gardner, E. — 2011-08-01T09:01:32-07:00

Purpose

We sought to confirm predictions based on past findings that pretreatment mean length of utterance (MLU) would predict which of 2 grammatical treatments would best facilitate generalized and maintained grammatical development in preschoolers with specific language impairment (SLI).

Method

The participants were 57 preschoolers with SLI. A randomized group experiment was used. The 2 grammatical treatments were broad target recasts (BTR) and milieu language teaching (MLT). MLU was assessed at Time 1 in 2 conversational language samples. Growth rate of productive grammar was quantified using growth curve modeling on the Index of Productive Syntax (IPSyn) from 2 conversational language samples at each of 6 measurement periods.

Results

Predictions were confirmed for children with initially low MLU but not for children with initially high MLUs. MLT facilitated growth of grammar better than BTR in children who were initially in Brown's stage I. Effects maintained 5 months after treatment ended.

Working Memory Training for Children With Cochlear Implants: A Pilot Study [Article]

2011-08-01T09:01:32-07:00

Purpose

This study investigated the feasibility and efficacy of a working memory training program for improving memory and language skills in a sample of 9 children who are deaf (age 7–15 years) with cochlear implants (CIs).

Method

All children completed the Cogmed Working Memory Training program on a home computer over a 5-week period. Feasibility and acceptability of the program were evaluated using parent report and measures of children's performance on the training exercises. Efficacy measures of working memory and sentence repetition were obtained prior to training, immediately after training, and 1 month and 6 months after training.

Results

Children's performance improved on most training exercises, and parents reported no problems with children's hearing or understanding of the exercises. After completion of working memory training, children demonstrated significant improvement on measures of verbal and nonverbal working memory, parent-reported working memory behavior, and sentence-repetition skills. The magnitude of improvement in working memory decreased slightly at the 1-month follow-up and more substantially at 6-month follow-up. However, sentence repetition continued to show marked improvement at 6-month follow-up.

Conclusions

Working memory training may produce benefit for some memory and language skills for children with CIs, supporting the importance of conducting a large-scale, randomized clinical trial with this population.

Peer Interactions of Preschool Children With and Without Hearing Loss [Article]

DeLuzio, J., Girolametto, L. — 2011-08-01T09:01:32-07:00

Purpose

Little is known about the social interaction skills of children with severe to profound hearing loss (SPHL) in terms of how they manage conversational exchanges with peers. This study compared the initiation and response skills of children with SPHL with those of children with typical hearing during group play in integrated preschool programs.

Method

Two groups of 12 children were matched on a number of variables and assessed for intelligence, language, speech, and social development. All initiations, responses, and resulting interactions during 20 min of group play were transcribed and coded. Outcome measures included number and type of initiation strategies, number of responses, and length of interactions.

Results

Despite poorer speech, language, and social development, there were no significant differences in initiation and response skills measured between children with SPHL and their matched peers. The small sample size may have made differences difficult to detect; however, playmates initiated interactions less often with the children with SPHL and ignored their initiations more often than those of other children.

Conclusions

Preschool children with SPHL were excluded from interactions by their playmates. Having age-appropriate language skills did not ensure successful peer interactions. Inclusive preschool programs may consider offering classroom-wide social skills training to enhance interaction opportunities.

Vowel Identification by Listeners With Hearing Impairment in Response to Variation in Formant Frequencies [Article]

Molis, M. R., Leek, M. R. — 2011-08-01T09:01:32-07:00

Purpose

This study examined the influence of presentation level and mild-to-moderate hearing loss on the identification of a set of vowel tokens systematically varying in the frequency locations of their second and third formants.

Method

Five listeners with normal hearing (NH listeners) and five listeners with hearing impairment (HI listeners) identified synthesized vowels that represented both highly identifiable and ambiguous examples of /i/, //, and //.

Results

Response patterns of NH listeners showed significant changes, with an increase in presentation level from 75 dB SPL to 95 dB SPL, including increased category overlap. HI listeners, listening only at the higher level, showed greater category overlap than normal and overall identification patterns that differed significantly from those of NH listeners. Excitation patterns based on estimates of auditory filters suggested smoothing of the internal representations, resulting in impaired formant resolution.

Conclusions

Both increased presentation level for NH listeners and the presence of hearing loss produced a significant change in vowel identification for this stimulus set. Major differences were observed between NH listeners and HI listeners in vowel category overlap and in the sharpness of boundaries between vowel tokens. It is likely that these findings reflect imprecise internal spectral representations due to reduced frequency selectivity.

Children's Performance in Complex Listening Conditions: Effects of Hearing Loss and Digital Noise Reduction [Article]

Pittman, A. — 2011-08-01T09:01:32-07:00

Purpose

To determine the effect of hearing loss (HL) on children's performance for an auditory task under demanding listening conditions and to determine the effect of digital noise reduction (DNR) on that performance.

Method

Fifty children with normal hearing (NH) and 30 children with HL (8–12 years of age) categorized words in the presence of auditory or visual competitors, or both. Stimuli were presented at 50 dB SPL at a 0-dB signal-to-noise ratio. Children with HL were fitted with behind-the-ear hearing aids that had DNR technology. When DNR was activated, output decreased 4 dB, and signal-to-noise ratio increased 2 dB.

Results

Significant main effects of group and age were observed. Performance for both groups decreased in noise, and the performance of the children with HL decreased further with the addition of the visual task. However, performance was unaffected by DNR. For the children with HL, stimulus audibility and communication skills contributed significantly to performance, whereas their history of hearing aid use did not.

Conclusions

For the children with HL, tasks unrelated to hearing interfered with their ability to participate in the auditory task. Consistent with previous studies, performance in noise was unaffected by DNR.

Perceptual Adaptation of Voice Gender Discrimination With Spectrally Shifted Vowels [Research Note]

Li, T., Fu, Q.-J. — 2011-08-01T09:01:32-07:00

Purpose

To determine whether perceptual adaptation improves voice gender discrimination of spectrally shifted vowels and, if so, which acoustic cues contribute to the improvement.

Method

Voice gender discrimination was measured for 10 normal-hearing subjects, during 5 days of adaptation to spectrally shifted vowels, produced by processing the speech of 5 male and 5 female talkers with 16-channel sine-wave vocoders. The subjects were randomly divided into 2 groups; one subjected to 50-Hz, and the other to 200-Hz, temporal envelope cutoff frequencies. No preview or feedback was provided.

Results

There was significant adaptation in voice gender discrimination with the 200-Hz cutoff frequency, but significant improvement was observed only for 3 female talkers with F₀ > 180 Hz and 3 male talkers with F₀ < 170 Hz. There was no significant adaptation with the 50-Hz cutoff frequency.

Conclusions

Temporal envelope cues are important for voice gender discrimination under spectral shift conditions with perceptual adaptation, but spectral shift may limit the exclusive use of spectral information and/or the use of formant structure on voice gender discrimination. The results have implications for cochlear implant users and for understanding voice gender discrimination.