Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools recent issues

The Time Has Come [From the Editor...]

Apel, K. — Fri, 02 Oct 2009 07:48:19 PDT

The Utility of School-Age Narrative Microstructure Indices: INMIS and the Proportion of Restricted Utterances [Article]

Hoffman, L. M. — Fri, 02 Oct 2009 07:48:19 PDT

Purpose

This research investigated the applicability of the index of narrative microstructure (INMIS; L. M. Justice et al., 2006) system for narratives that were elicited through a wordless picture book context. In addition, the viability of an alternative, simpler metric was explored.

Method

Narrative transcripts using the Frog, Where Are You? (M. Mayer, 1969) wordless picture book with 48 school-age children with and without language impairment were analyzed using the INMIS productivity and complexity indices and a proportion of restricted utterances metric. Roy-Bargmann stepdown F calculations, effect sizes, confidence intervals, and positive and negative likelihood ratios were analyzed to examine the statistical and clinical significance of each narrative metric.

Results

The INMIS complexity metric and the proportion of restricted utterances metric yielded statistically significant differences between the two language ability groups and are likely to have good potential as research and clinical tools within the wordless picture book narrative elicitation context. The INMIS productivity metric did not differentiate between the language groups.

Conclusion

The results support the use of the INMIS complexity metric in a wordless picture book elicitation context and introduce an alternative microstructure analysis metric, the proportion of restricted utterances, which uses a logically transparent scale and may meet research and clinical needs without requiring the use of specialized software or complex calculations.

Prekindergarten Teachers' Verbal References to Print During Classroom-Based, Large-Group Shared Reading [Reports]

Zucker, T. A., Justice, L. M., Piasta, S. B. — Fri, 02 Oct 2009 07:48:19 PDT

Purpose

The frequency with which adults reference print when reading with preschool-age children is associated with growth in children's print knowledge (e.g., L.M. Justice & H.K. Ezell, 2000, 2002). This study examined whether prekindergarten (pre-K) teachers naturally reference print during classroom shared reading and if verbal print references occur at similar rates across different types of books. The relation between frequency of print referencing and quality of teachers' language instruction was also studied.

Method

Seventeen pre-K teachers were randomly assigned to a regular reading condition as part of a larger study, and 92 videos of their large-group, shared-reading sessions were analyzed for print-referencing utterances and quality of language instruction. Teachers' verbal print references were compared across texts that were purposefully sampled to include different levels of print salience.

Results

Teachers discussed all domains of print studied; however, their rate of print referencing was relatively low. More verbal print references were observed when the teachers read books exhibiting higher amounts of print-salient features. When reading books, there was no apparent relation between teachers' use of print referencing and their quality of language instruction.

Conclusion

It is unclear whether this low rate of explicit, verbal print referencing would impact children's print knowledge. Nonetheless, print-salient books appear to offer a natural context for discussions about print. Implications for educational practice are considered.

Cohesive Adequacy in the Narrative Samples of School-Age Children Who Use African American English [Reports]

Horton-Ikard, R. — Fri, 02 Oct 2009 07:48:19 PDT

Purpose

This study explored the type and adequacy of cohesive devices that are produced by school-age children who use African American English (AAE).

Method

The language samples of 33 African American children, ages 7, 9, and 11 years, were transcribed, analyzed, and coded for AAE use and cohesive adequacy (e.g., personal reference, demonstrative reference, lexical, and conjunctive markers).

Results

There were 2 AAE features that child speakers used for cohesive purposes. Adequacy rates for personal reference cohesive devices were higher than for the other 3 categories. Age was a significant factor in the use and adequacy of cohesive devices.

Conclusion

Typically developing African American children use the same category types of cohesive devices that have been reported for their peers who speak Standard American English. Further examination of cohesive adequacy to identify language impairment in school-age AAE speakers is warranted.

Perspectives From the Field of Early Childhood Special Education [Prologue]

Kaderavek, J. N. — Fri, 02 Oct 2009 07:48:19 PDT

Purpose

Positive academic outcomes for young children with special education needs can best be facilitated when a combination of professionals including speech-language pathologists (SLPs), general education teachers, occupational and physical therapists, and early childhood special educators (ECSEs) work together. However, it can be challenging to read across disciplines to maintain expertise within the domain of early childhood education because each profession has specialized intradisciplinary terminology. This clinical forum provides an up-to-date summary of the field of early childhood special education, with articles from experts from related professions describing current issues and trends in the field.

Method

This prologue introduces the concepts of universal design, differentiated instruction, and embedded learning opportunities. The prologue also outlines the roles, responsibilities, and accountability of professionals who work in early childhood special education.

Conclusion

SLPs can work toward strategic alliances with ECSEs when they understand the field from the perspective of related professions in early childhood special education.

Understanding Curriculum Modifications and Embedded Learning Opportunities in the Context of Supporting All Children's Success [Clinical Forum]

Horn, E., Banerjee, R. — Fri, 02 Oct 2009 07:48:19 PDT

Purpose

The primary purpose of this article is to provide a closer look at the individualization process whereby early childhood professionals ensure that the individualized learning priorities for each child are appropriately addressed.

Method

Early childhood professionals, including speech-language pathologists (SLPs), are working to meet the federal mandate of access to and progress in the general curriculum for children with disabilities. A promising approach to achieving this mandate is a multitiered model of support that has as its foundation a high-quality, universally designed curriculum. Following a brief description of the components of this model, the discussion shifts to a focus on the individualization components. Children's individualized needs for supports are provided through instructional individualization, including curriculum modifications and embedded learning opportunities.

Implications

Implementation of a multitiered model of support has direct implications for the SLP working in preschool settings. The decision for when and what form the supports should take is determined through assessment and by linking desired child outcomes to curriculum content and the individualized child supports. In order to be an effective team member in this process, the SLP must understand the concepts and specific strategies that form the foundation for each tier.

Making Decisions About Service Delivery in Early Childhood Programs [Clinical Forum]

Case-Smith, J., Holland, T. — Fri, 02 Oct 2009 07:48:19 PDT

Purpose

This article presents a rationale for specialized services personnel to use fluid models of service delivery and explains how specialized services personnel make decisions about the blend of service delivery methods that will best serve a child.

Method

The literature on occupational therapy, physical therapy, and speech-language pathology service delivery in early childhood programs is reviewed, synthesized, and applied to current practice. The literature explains that direct and consultative services provide unique benefits to children and should be flexibly scheduled based on each child's current priorities. Flexible service delivery models allow therapists to meet the evolving needs of children within dynamic environments.

Conclusion

To establish fluid service delivery models, therapists need to (a) plan collaboratively with teachers so that the model selected meets the teacher's preferences, (b) design flexible scheduling systems that emphasize inclusive practice, and (c) maintain precise documentation about when and how services are provided.

Response to Intervention: Implications for Early Childhood Professionals [Clinical Forum]

Fri, 02 Oct 2009 07:48:19 PDT

Purpose

The purpose of this article is to discuss the importance of building strong early childhood communities of interdisciplinary practice in the application of a comprehensive curriculum framework. A curriculum framework is proposed as a means of applying and extending the principles of response to intervention (RtI) to early childhood education providers working with young children, including speech-language pathologists (SLPs). The article presents information regarding the elements of a curriculum framework and suggestions for practice.

Method

Literature related to RtI was reviewed to identify common principles of practice. The resulting principles were then aligned to early childhood education recommended practices in order to illustrate the overlapping beliefs. Rationale and support for a curriculum framework as an early childhood education RtI model was then gathered to identify appropriate practices for working with young children who are served in a variety of early childhood settings.

Conclusion

SLPs are important members of early educational teams, particularly when applying the principles of RtI using a curriculum framework. SLPs bring the expertise needed to ensure that children achieve critical outcomes. Implementation of the curriculum framework is made possible when everyone involved in supporting young children understands how to apply the elements of a curriculum framework.

A Consultative Itinerant Approach to Service Delivery: Considerations for the Early Childhood Community [Clinical Forum]

Dinnebeil, L., Pretti-Frontczak, K., McInerney, W. — Fri, 02 Oct 2009 07:48:19 PDT

Purpose

This article, written by experts in itinerant early childhood special education, describes and differentiates approaches to itinerant early childhood special education as a primary service delivery option. Consultative itinerant early childhood special education services, in particular, are a means of ensuring that young children with disabilities have access to the general early childhood curriculum as offered in community-based programs.

Method

A discussion of the empirical literature that supports a consultative approach, literature that focuses on behavioral consultation and principles of distributed practice and embedded learning opportunities, is included. In addition, this article outlines a set of assumptions that program personnel make when implementing a consultative itinerant approach to service delivery. The need for and challenges associated with a consultative itinerant approach are discussed.

Conclusion

Itinerant early childhood special educators face similar challenges as speech-language pathologists with regard to providing high-quality interventions to children in inclusive settings.

Accountability for Services for Young Children With Disabilities and the Assessment of Meaningful Outcomes: The Role of the Speech-Language Pathologist [Clinical Forum]

Hebbeler, K., Rooney, R. — Fri, 02 Oct 2009 07:48:20 PDT

Purpose

This article describes the federal accountability requirements related to young children with disabilities and the contribution of the speech-language pathologist (SLP) to provide these data through the use of authentic, functional assessments.

Method

The article summarizes recent state and federal developments related to assessment for accountability and draws on the recommendations of national organizations, including the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, to underscore the importance of high-quality assessment for guiding practice and for documenting child outcomes for accountability.

Clinical Implications/Conclusion

The widespread use of recommended practices for assessment will provide children, families, and practitioners, including SLPs, with the highest quality assessment information, at the same time providing states and the federal government with much-needed valid data on child outcomes for accountability purposes.

Do We Do Literacy? [From the Editor...]

Apel, K. — Mon, 29 Jun 2009 11:13:38 PDT

Phonological Milestones for African American English-Speaking Children Learning Mainstream American English as a Second Dialect [Articles]

Pearson, B. Z., Velleman, S. L., Bryant, T. J., Charko, T. — Mon, 29 Jun 2009 11:13:38 PDT

Purpose

This study provides milestones for phonological development in African American English (AAE) speakers who are learning Mainstream American English (MAE) as a second dialect.

Method

The Dialect Sensitive Language Test (DSLT; H. Seymour, T. Roeper, & J. G. de Villiers, 2000) was administered to a nationwide sample of typically developing children ages 4 through 12: 537 speakers of AAE as a first dialect and 317 speakers of MAE as a first dialect. DSLT items tested all consonant segments and many clusters of MAE in initial and final position. The age at which each dialect group reached 90% criterion for each segment in each position was compared.

Results

Several phonetic elements that are contrastive between the dialects (i.e., differentiate the dialects) in word-final position were found to be similar in the 2 groups in word-initial position. Only /ð/ was contrastive in both positions. We confirm the later acquisition of certain phonological segments and structures by AAE speakers compared to MAE speakers and report their earlier mastery of other elements of MAE phonology.

Conclusion

Both segmental and phonotactic development show different trajectories for AAE and MAE. Thus, initial diagnosis of impairment for AAE children should focus only on mastery of noncontrastive segments and structures that share a similar developmental profile for the 2 dialect groups.

Language, Mental State Vocabulary, and False Belief Understanding in Children With Cochlear Implants [Articles]

Peters, K., Remmel, E., Richards, D. — Mon, 29 Jun 2009 11:13:38 PDT

Purpose

This study examined false belief understanding and its predictors in school-age children who are deaf with cochlear implants and who use spoken language.

Method

False belief understanding was measured through an explanation-of-action task in 30 children between the ages of 3 and 12 years who used cochlear implants. Children told a wordless story from which expressive syntax and vocabulary scores were obtained. Scores on the false belief explanation task were then correlated with a variety of language and vocabulary variables, and regression analyses were completed to ascertain significant predictors of theory of mind (ToM) performance.

Results

Children's false belief explanation of anomalous action was best predicted by age; general language ability; and spontaneous use of mental state vocabulary, specifically, cognitive vocabulary. Even the youngest children demonstrated awareness of others' mental states and made reference to them in explaining mistaken actions, supporting the assertion by M. Marschark, V. Green, G. Hindmarsh, and S. Walker (2000) that children who are deaf are not lacking a ToM.

Clinical Implications

Results of this study suggest that ToM maturation in deaf children might be facilitated by developing general spoken language skills as well as understanding and using cognitive and emotional language. These findings might also extend to children with normal hearing who are also at risk for ToM deficits (e.g., children on the autistic spectrum and children with pragmatic language delays).

A Survey of University Professors Teaching Speech Sound Disorders: Nonspeech Oral Motor Exercises and Other Topics [Articles]

Watson, M. M., Lof, G. L. — Mon, 29 Jun 2009 11:13:38 PDT

Purpose

The purpose of this article was to obtain and organize information from instructors who teach course work on the subject of children's speech sound disorders (SSD) regarding their use of teaching resources, involvement in students' clinical practica, and intervention approaches presented to students. Instructors also reported if they taught students to use nonspeech oral motor exercises (NSOMEs) to remediate children's SSD.

Method

A questionnaire was mailed to 236 speech-language pathology preprofessional programs in the United States that are accredited by the Council of Academic Accreditation.

Results

Ninety-one questionnaires (39%) were returned. Participants reported that they provided their students with information on a variety of intervention approaches for SSD and typically used professional journals and textbooks for current information. Sixty-eight (75%) paticipants reported that they did not teach their students to use NSOMEs. Forty-seven (52%) of the instructors supervised students in clinical practicum serving children with SSD and perceived that academic course work and practicum experiences influenced their students' implementation of intervention for children with SSD.

Conclusion

The instructors reported that they taught their students a variety of intervention techniques for children with SSD, although most did not teach the use of NSOMEs. These results contrast with previous research indicating that many speech-language pathologists use NSOMEs to improve children's speech (G.L. Lof & M.M. Watson, 2008).

Mexican American Mothers of Low and Middle Socioeconomic Status: Communication Behaviors and Interactive Strategies During Shared Book Reading [Articles]

Rodriguez, B. L., Hines, R., Montiel, M. — Mon, 29 Jun 2009 11:13:38 PDT

Purpose

The aim of this investigation was to describe and compare the communication behaviors and interactive reading strategies used by Mexican American mothers of low- and middle-socioeconomic status (SES) background during shared book reading.

Method

Twenty Mexican American mother–child dyads from the Southwestern United States were observed during two book reading sessions. The data were coded across a number of communication behavior categories and were analyzed using the Adult/Child Interactive Reading Inventory (ACIRI; A. DeBruin-Parecki, 1999 ).

Results

Mexican American mothers used a variety of communication behaviors during shared book reading with their preschool children. Significant differences between the SES groups regarding the frequency of specific communication behaviors were revealed. Middle-SES mothers used positive feedback and yes/no questions more often than did low-SES mothers. Mexican American mothers also used a variety of interactive reading strategies with varying frequency, as measured by the ACIRI. They enhanced attention to text some of the time, but rarely promoted interactive reading/supported comprehension or used literacy strategies. There were no significant differences between the SES groups regarding the frequency of interactive reading strategies.

Conclusion

Parent literacy programs should supplement Mexican American mothers' communication behaviors and interactive reading strategies to improve effectiveness and participation.

Morphology and Literacy: Getting Our Heads in the Game [Prologue]

Green, L. — Mon, 29 Jun 2009 11:13:38 PDT

Purpose

This prologue introduces the clinical forum, briefly discusses the importance of morphology in literacy, and informs the reader of the scope of the included articles.

Method

The concept of morphology is reviewed, contributing authors are introduced, and a brief summary of each of the 5 forum articles is provided.

Conclusion

The studies in this forum investigated different morphological skills in a variety of contexts, at a variety of grade levels, and from a variety of perspectives, enabling the reader to learn more about morphological awareness developmentally, linguistically, and clinically.

The Influence of Morphological Awareness on the Literacy Development of First-Grade Children [Clinical Forum]

Wolter, J. A., Wood, A., D'zatko, K. W. — Mon, 29 Jun 2009 11:13:38 PDT

Purpose

The purpose of this study was twofold. First, we investigated whether first-grade children evidenced morphological awareness and whether they used their knowledge of morphological relations to guide their spelling. Second, we sought to determine whether children's morphological awareness abilities were predictive of their performance on word-level reading and spelling measures.

Method

At the beginning of the academic school year, 43 first-grade children were administered an oral morphological awareness production task, a series of single-word morphological spelling tasks, and a battery of language and literacy tasks.

Results

The first-grade children were able to generate words reflecting morphological relations before they received explicit instruction regarding morphological relations between words. In addition, the children used morphological information to guide their spelling of single words, as evidenced by a difference in patterns of spellings between 1- and 2-morpheme words. Regression analyses revealed that the children's performance on the oral morphological production task explained unique variance on their reading and spelling measures above and beyond the variance that was accounted for by phonological awareness.

Conclusion

Children as young as first graders evidenced morphological awareness, and morphological awareness influenced the children's literacy development. Theoretical implications of the findings are discussed.

Derivational Morphophonology: Exploring Errors in Third Graders' Productions [Clinical Forum]

Jarmulowicz, L., Hay, S. E. — Mon, 29 Jun 2009 11:13:38 PDT

Purpose

This study describes a post hoc analysis of segmental, stress, and syllabification errors in third graders' productions of derived English words with the stress-changing suffixes -ity and -ic. We investigated whether (a) derived word frequency influences error patterns, (b) stress and syllabification errors always co-occur, and (c) derived word stress pattern affects errors.

Method

A total of 1,900 productions from 81 third-grade children were transcribed and coded. The targets were 8 high-frequency (HF) and 8 low-frequency (LF) real English words and 8 nonsense (NS) derived words. Participants combined a suffix and a base word to produce a derived word. The vowel-initial suffixes required both stress and syllabic changes in a base word.

Results

Children made more segmental and stress errors on NS words than on HF and LF words, but more syllabification errors on LF words than on HF and NS words. More items among the LF words required vowel alternations than among the HF words. When syllabification was not mastered, stress was usually incorrect; however, when syllabification was correct, children often still erred on stress. Derived words that contained 2 trochaic feet were produced with fewer errors than were those that only had 1 trochaic foot.

Conclusion

Rather than a frequency effect, a lexical effect emerged such that real words were more similar to each other for segmental and stress errors than they were to NS words. Three findings suggest that prosody plays a role in errors: Children made more suprasegmental than segmental errors, they appeared to master syllabification before stress placement, and they produced fewer errors on derived words with 2 trochaic feet than on those with only 1 trochaic foot. Although these results are preliminary, they highlight the role of prosody in morphophonology.

Morphological Awareness Skills of Fourth-Grade African American Students [Clinical Forum]

Apel, K., Thomas-Tate, S. — Mon, 29 Jun 2009 11:13:38 PDT

Purpose

We examined the morphological awareness skills of fourth-grade African American children and the association between degree of African American English (AAE) use and performance on written measures of morphological awareness. Additional purposes were to determine whether performance on the morphological awareness tasks (a) was affected by the transparency of morphologically related words and the type of task administered, (b) was associated with other literacy and literacy-related skills, and (c) explained unique variance on these latter abilities.

Method

Thirty fourth-grade African American children from low-income backgrounds were administered 2 morphological awareness tasks and completed norm-referenced measures of word-level reading, reading comprehension, spelling, phonemic awareness, and receptive vocabulary.

Results

The degree of AAE use was not associated with students' performance on the morphological awareness tasks. On these tasks, significantly higher scores were obtained on items that represented a transparent relationship between a base word and its derived form. The students' performance on the morphological awareness tasks was significantly and moderately related to their performance on the word-level reading, spelling, and receptive vocabulary measures. Morphological awareness scores explained significant unique variance on measures of word-level reading and spelling, above that predicted by performance on measures of phonemic awareness and vocabulary.

Conclusion

As shown in previous investigations of Caucasian children's morphological awareness skills, fourth-grade African American students' morphological awareness abilities are associated with select language and literacy skills. Professionals should capitalize on students' intact capabilities in morphological awareness during literacy instruction in an effort to maximize language and literacy performance for African American students.

Teaching Students With Reading Difficulties to be Close Readers: A Feasibility Study [Clinical Forum]

Katz, L. A., Carlisle, J. F. — Mon, 29 Jun 2009 11:13:38 PDT

Purpose

This article describes a program that was designed to help upper elementary students read and understand words as they read texts independently. As a first step in helping middle-to-upper elementary children with mild-to-moderate language and/or reading difficulties engage in textual analysis during reading, the Close Reading program combines instruction in morphological-analysis and context-analysis strategies with guided experiences applying these strategies during reading.

Method

To carry out an initial feasibility study of the program, we conducted 3 case studies using standardized pretest and posttest measures of language and reading skills and experimental progress monitoring measures administered before, during, and after instruction. Three fourth-grade girls participated in the 12-week program.

Results

All 3 students showed improved word reading and comprehension with small to large effect sizes on standardized and experimental measures. Patterns of improvement reflected the initial strengths and weaknesses of the students' reading and language skills.

Conclusion

The results suggest that further experimental investigation of this program is warranted. Instruction in morphological-analysis strategies with guided practice during reading holds promise as a way to improve word reading and comprehension for struggling readers in the middle-to-upper elementary years.

Integrated Morphological Awareness Intervention as a Tool for Improving Literacy [Clinical Forum]

Kirk, C., Gillon, G. T. — Mon, 29 Jun 2009 11:13:39 PDT

Purpose

This study evaluated the effects of an intervention program aimed to improve reading and spelling ability through instruction in morphological awareness together with other forms of linguistic awareness, including knowledge of phonology, orthography, syntax, and semantics.

Method

Sixteen children aged between 8;07 (years;months) and 11;01 who demonstrated specific spelling difficulties were randomly assigned to either an experimental or a control group. Participants received an average of 19.4 sessions of intervention that focused on increasing awareness of the morphological structure of words, with particular attention to the orthographic rules that apply when suffixes are added to the base word.

Results

Participants in the experimental group made significantly greater gains in reading and spelling accuracy than those in the control group on both experimental and standardized measures of reading and spelling. The results also show that participants were able to generalize to new words what they had learned in the intervention sessions.

Conclusion

Practitioners should consider the likely benefits of literacy intervention that focuses on developing morphological awareness in conjunction with other types of linguistic awareness.

Morphology and Literacy: Getting (and Keeping) Our Heads in the Game [Epilogue]

Green, L. — Mon, 29 Jun 2009 11:13:39 PDT

A Taxing Situation [From the Editor...]

Apel, K. — Tue, 31 Mar 2009 15:00:24 PDT

Parent and Teacher Report of Social Skills in Children With Autism Spectrum Disorders [Articles]

Murray, D. S., Ruble, L. A., Willis, H., Molloy, C. A. — Tue, 31 Mar 2009 15:00:24 PDT

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to examine the agreement between parent and teacher perceptions of specific social behaviors in children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD).

Method

Informant ratings were generated concerning 45 children with ASD between the ages of 5 and 14 years who were enrolled in social skills groups at 2 Midwestern outpatient autism treatment centers.

Results

Moderate agreement was observed between parents and teachers for the overall social skills rating scores (r = 0.34; p < 0.05), but there was little agreement on specific social items. Distinct patterns of skill profiles emerged. Parents consistently provided relatively higher ratings on items that pertained to initiating interactions. Teachers, on the other hand, consistently provided higher ratings on items related to responding to and maintaining interactions. Parents and teachers agreed most often on items of affective understanding and perspective taking.

Conclusion

These findings suggest that specific social behaviors may be context dependent, indicating the need for a multi-informant approach to provide a more complete profile of a child's social abilities, which is necessary for generating a more effective treatment plan.

The Effect of Tier 2 Intervention for Phonemic Awareness in a Response-to-Intervention Model in Low-Income Preschool Classrooms [Articles]

Koutsoftas, A. D., Harmon, M. T., Gray, S. — Tue, 31 Mar 2009 15:00:24 PDT

Purpose

This study assessed the effectiveness of a Tier 2 intervention that was designed to increase the phonemic awareness skills of low-income preschoolers who were enrolled in Early Reading First classrooms.

Method

Thirty-four preschoolers participated in a multiple baseline across participants treatment design. Tier 2 intervention for beginning sound awareness was provided twice weekly in small groups over 6 weeks by trained teachers and speech-language pathologists (SLPs).

Results

The intervention was successful for 71% of the children, as indicated by medium to large effect sizes. Comparisons between children who did and did not qualify for intervention suggest that Tier 2 intervention helped narrow the gap in beginning sound awareness that had begun to emerge before treatment. Although children receiving special education and those learning English as a second language were enrolled in the classrooms, they were not overrepresented in the group qualifying for Tier 2 intervention, and most who did qualify demonstrated a positive response to intervention.

Conclusion

In a relatively short period of time, preschoolers' phonemic awareness skills were increased through small-group Tier 2 intervention provided by teachers and SLPs. Findings indicate the potential of Tier 2 interventions to positively impact the future reading skills of children who are at risk for later reading difficulties.

The Effects of a Sound-Field Amplification System on Managerial Time in Middle School Physical Education Settings [Articles]

Ryan, S. — Tue, 31 Mar 2009 15:00:24 PDT

Purpose

The focus of this research effort was to examine the effect of a sound-field amplification system on managerial time in the beginning of class in a physical education setting.

Method

A multiple baseline design across participants was used to measure change in the managerial time of 2 middle school female physical education teachers using a portable sound-field amplification system. Managerial time is defined as the cumulative amount of time that students spend on organizational, transitional, and nonsubject matter tasks in a lesson.

Results

The findings showed that the amount of managerial time at the beginning of class clearly decreased when the teacher used sound-field amplification feedback to physical education students.

Conclusion

Findings indicate an immediate need for administrators to determine the most appropriate, cost-effective procedure to support sound-field amplification systems in existing physical education settings.

Cross-Dialectal Perceptual Experiences of Speech-Language Pathologists in Predominantly Caucasian American School Districts [Reports]

Robinson, G. C., Stockman, I. J. — Tue, 31 Mar 2009 15:00:24 PDT

Purpose

This study aimed to determine if the number and type of African American English (AAE) features that are spoken in sentences influence speech-language pathologists' (SLPs') judgments of (a) how noticeable the dialect is (dialect detectability) and (b) how understandable a speaker is to others (comprehensibility).

Method

Certified SLPs with little conversational experience with AAE were recruited from predominantly Caucasian American school districts in Michigan. They listened to sentences that contained varying amounts and types of AAE phonological features. The SLPs rated the sentences on 5-point scales regarding dialect detectability and comprehensibility. The ratings for the different sentences were compared to determine how the variables contributed to the SLPs' judgments of AAE.

Results

Both dialect detectability and comprehensibility ratings were affected by the number of AAE features that were included in the sentences. The types of AAE features consistently affected the comprehensibility ratings but less consistently affected the dialect detectability ratings.

Conclusion

Multiple factors may affect SLPs' perceptions of AAE. The outcomes have both theoretical and practical implications.

The Diagnostic Accuracy and Construct Validity of the Structured Photographic Expressive Language Test--Preschool: Second Edition [Reports]

Greenslade, K. J., Plante, E., Vance, R. — Tue, 31 Mar 2009 15:00:24 PDT

Purpose

In order to support evidence-based practice, this study served to evaluate the diagnostic accuracy, convergent validity, and divergent validity of the Structured Photographic Expressive Language Test—Preschool: Second Edition (SPELT–P2; J. Dawson, J. A. Eyer, J. Fonkalsrud, 2005) in order to determine whether it can be used as a valid measure for identifying language impairment in preschoolers.

Method

The SPELT–P2 was administered to 54 children with typically developing language and 42 children with specific language impairment.

Results

A discriminant analysis revealed good sensitivity (90.6%), good specificity (100%), and good positive and negative likelihood ratios, with a standard score cutoff point of 87 used to determine group membership. Analyses of convergent and divergent validity also supported use of the SPELT–P2 for identifying language impairment in preschoolers.

Implications

The empirical evidence supports use of the SPELT–P2 as a valid measure for correctly identifying the presence or absence of language impairment in 4- and 5-year-old preschool children.

Validity of Teacher Report for Assessing the Emergent Literacy Skills of At-Risk Preschoolers [Reports]

Cabell, S. Q., Justice, L. M., Zucker, T. A., Kilday, C. R. — Tue, 31 Mar 2009 15:00:24 PDT

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to determine the predictive validity of teacher report for assessing the emergent literacy skills of preschool-age children. The aims were twofold: (a) to examine predictive relationships between teacher report and direct behavioral assessment, and (b) to examine the extent to which teacher report accurately differentiates children who are exhibiting low levels of emergent literacy skills relative to their peers.

Method

Forty-four preschool teachers completed a rating form reporting the print-related emergent literacy skills of 209 children who were enrolled in their classrooms. Approximately 2 months later, the children completed direct assessments of these skills.

Results

Correlations between teacher report and children's performance on direct behavioral assessments were positive, moderate to large in size, and statistically significant. In terms of classifying children into groupings based on risk (e.g., at risk, low risk), global teacher ratings demonstrated a sensitivity of 51.9% and a specificity of 87.9%.

Clinical Implications

The present results indicate that teacher report provides a somewhat valid representation of children's skills. However, the diagnostic accuracy of teacher report for identifying children who are at risk is generally low. With this limitation in mind, teacher report can provide an important complement to current assessment approaches that are used in preschool settings.

The Case for the Narrow View of Reading [Prologue]

Kamhi, A. G. — Tue, 31 Mar 2009 15:00:24 PDT

Purpose

This prologue reiterates the case for the narrow view of reading as a solution to the persistently high levels of reading failure that occurs in our schools and provides a brief summary of the 5 response articles.

Method

The arguments that support the narrow view of reading are presented and the respondents are introduced.

Conclusion

Although the contributors to this clinical forum may have different views, we all are working toward a common goal: improving the literacy levels of children in our schools.

The Narrow View of Reading Promotes a Broad View of Comprehension [Clinical Forum]

Catts, H. W. — Tue, 31 Mar 2009 15:00:24 PDT

Purpose

This article is a response to A. G. Kamhi's proposal of the narrow view of reading.

Method

A descriptive approach is used to review research concerning the cognitive basis of reading comprehension. Educational implications for instruction and assessment are considered. The role of the speech-language pathologist (SLP) in intervention related to reading comprehension is also addressed.

Conclusion

Although the narrow view of reading seems restrictive, it actually leads to a broad view of comprehension. The latter view, which is consistent with current research, proposes that comprehension is an active process in which readers use background knowledge and a range of cognitive processes to construct a coherent representation of text. This view challenges some current approaches to assessment and instruction of reading comprehension. It does not, however, diminish the role that SLPs can play in intervention related to reading comprehension.

A Case for the Sentence in Reading Comprehension [Clinical Forum]

Scott, C. M. — Tue, 31 Mar 2009 15:00:24 PDT

Purpose

This article addresses sentence comprehension as a requirement of reading comprehension within the framework of the narrow view of reading that was advocated in the prologue to this forum. The focus is on the comprehension requirements of complex sentences, which are characteristic of school texts.

Method

Topics included in this discussion are (a) evidence linking sentence comprehension and syntax with reading, (b) syntactic properties of sentences that make them difficult to understand, (c) clinical applications for the assessment of sentence comprehension as it relates to reading, and (d) evidence and methods for addressing sentence complexity in treatment.

Conclusion

Sentence complexity can create comprehension problems for struggling readers. The contribution of sentence comprehension to successful reading has been overlooked in models that emphasize domain-general comprehension strategies at the text level. The author calls for the evaluation of sentence comprehension within the context of content domains where complex sentences are found.

Looking Through an Adolescent Literacy Lens at the Narrow View of Reading [Clinical Forum]

Ehren, B. J. — Tue, 31 Mar 2009 15:00:24 PDT

Purpose

This commentary is a personal reaction to A. G. Kamhi's (2007) article on the "narrow view" of reading and his suggestion that this view be adopted as a way to address the reading problems of children and adolescents.

Method

In this article, I consider the narrow view of reading from an adolescent literacy perspective and discuss the practical implications of adopting this view in the schools. Discussion revolves around the complexities of reading comprehension, comprehension as a teachable set of complex processes, and the speech-language pathologist's role in reading comprehension.

Conclusion

Although I acknowledge that the narrow view of reading may have merit, I opine that it may create more problems than it solves.

Fluency: A Key Link Between Word Identification and Comprehension [Clinical Forum]

Bashir, A. S., Hook, P. E. — Tue, 31 Mar 2009 15:00:24 PDT

Purpose

The purpose of this article is to respond to A. G. Kamhi's (2007) challenge to consider two points of view on reading—the broad and the narrow. Each point of view includes a component of the reading process; namely, comprehension and word recognition. Taken separately, each point of view is insufficient for our understanding of the development of the reading process. We must account for the development of fluency as a key link between word identification and comprehension.

Method

A selective review of descriptive and evidence-based literature related to the complexity of the reading process is provided. In addition, information about the importance of reading fluency and the factors that contribute to fluent reading are reviewed.

Clinical Implications

Along with the other contributors to this forum, we suggest that reading is a complex developmental process that is based on the integration of diverse components into a smooth and automatic foundation on which fluent reading and consequently comprehension are grounded. We specifically address issues related to fluency and make suggestions for facilitating its development.

Making a Broader Case for the Narrow View: Where to Begin? [Clinical Forum]

Wallach, G. P., Charlton, S., Christie, J. — Tue, 31 Mar 2009 15:00:24 PDT

Purpose

This final article covering the topic of the interplay between decoding, comprehension, and content versus structure knowledge describes a set of language initiatives that are focused toward content area learning. Inspired by the work of their colleagues from diverse fields and their own work, the authors offer suggestions to clinicians who are interested in creating and delivering curriculum-relevant and strategic-based language intervention to school-age students with language learning disabilities (LLD).

Method

The discussion covers selected topics that form the foundation for an evolving intervention framework, including (a) understanding the content and structural requirements of textbooks, (b) integrating metacognitive and metalinguistic techniques into intervention goals and objectives, and (c) emphasizing meaning-based activities that cut across connected discourse (macrostructure levels) and sentence/word components (microstructure levels) of spoken and written language.

Conclusion

Starting with ways to find clues about "what to do" with students by looking in their textbooks, the authors continue with examples that integrate content and structure knowledge using social studies and science as backdrops for language intervention. The article ends with a reminder to clinicians to consider ways that preschool language intervention can be more effective in helping children prepare for the academic demands of the future.

Solving the Reading Crisis--Take 2: The Case for Differentiated Assessment [Epilogue]

Kamhi, A. G. — Tue, 31 Mar 2009 15:00:24 PDT

Purpose

The responses to my initial article (A. G. Kamhi, 2007) have raised serious questions about whether embracing the narrow view of reading is the best way to reduce the persistently high levels of reading failure experienced in today's schools. This afterword provides another attempt to offer a solution to this problem without the distraction of the narrow view of reading.

Method

This second attempt to solve the reading crisis draws on the five responses in this clinical forum and other helpful comments from colleagues who responded to the initial article in The ASHA Leader.

Conclusion

The way to eliminate high levels of reading failure is to differentiate word recognition from domain-general reading comprehension and specific subject knowledge in high-stakes assessments. This differentiation will focus attention on the true crisis in American education—knowledge deficiencies in the sciences, history, math, literature, and other subject areas that are important for success in the 21^st century.